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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2019  with  funding  from 
Getty  Research  Institute 


https://archive.org/details/plantanalysisdisOOunse 


I.  c.  s. 

REFERENCE  LIBRARY 


A  SERIES  OF  TEXTBOOKS  PREPARED  FOR  THE  STUDENTS  OF  THE 
INTERNATIONAL  CORRESPONDENCE  SCHOOLS  AND  CONTAINING 
IN  PERMANENT  FORM  THE  INSTRUCTION  PAPERS. 
EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS,  AND  KEYS  USED 
IN  THEIR  VARIOUS  COURSES 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 
DISTEMPER  COLOR 
BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 
CARPET  DESIGNING 
OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING 
WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 
THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 
COLOR  HARMONY 


SCRANTON 

INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK  COMPANY 


8 


Copyright,  1905,  by  International  Textbook  Company. 


Entered  at  Stationers’  Hall,  London. 


Plant  Analysis:  Copyright,  1905,  by  International  Textbook  Company.  Entered 
at  Stationers’  Hall,  London. 

Distemper  Color:  Copyright,  1905,  by  International  Textbook  Company. 
Entered  at  Stationers’  Hall,  London. 

Bookcover  Designing:  Copyright,  1905,  by  International  Textbook  Company. 
Entered  at  Stationers’  Hall,  London. 

Carpet  Designing:  Copyright,  1905,  by  International  Textbook  Company. 
Entered  at  Stationers’  Hall,  London. 

Oilcloth  and  Linoleum  Designing:  Copyright,  1905,  by  International  Textbook 
Company.  Entered  at  Stationers’  Hall,  London. 

Wallpaper  Designing:  Copyright.  1905,  by  International  Textbook  Company. 
Entered  at  Stationers’  Hall,  London. 

The  American  Vignola:  Copyright,  1902,  by  Wm.  R.  Ware.  Copyright,  1904,  by 
International  Textbook  Company. 

Color  Harmony:  Copyright,  1901,  by  International  Textbook  Company'.  Entered 
at  Stationers’  Hall,  London. 


All  rights  reserved. 


Printed  in  the  United  States. 


1S«I7 


(  HE  GETTY  CENTER 


CONTENTS 


Plant  Analysis  Seciioji  Page 

Introduction  .  5  1 

Conventionalism .  5  2 

Nature  Study .  5  13 

Outlining-  and  Rendering .  5  15 

Decorative  Treatment .  5  22 

Conventionalization .  5  27 

Distemper  Color 

Classes  of  Color .  6  1 

Color  Matching .  6  9 

Color  Harmony .  6  13 

Classification . 6  14 

Spectrum  Scales .  6  14 

Difference  Between  Mixing  Colored  Lights 

and  Colored  Pigments .  6  18 

Classification  of  Color  Harmonies  ....  6  22 

Color  Schemes  From  Nature .  6  29 

Bookcover  Designing 

Bookbinding  .  7  1 

Early  Stages  of  the  Art .  7  1 

Tools .  7  3 

Early  Influences  and  Styles .  7  5 

Modern  Bookbinding .  7  22 

Making  the  Bookcover  Cartoons  ....  7  31 

Classes  of  Bookcovers .  7  32 

Tooled  Bookcovers  .  7  32 

Printed  Bookcovers .  7  35 

iii 


IV 


CONTENTS 


Bookcover  Designing — Continued  Section  Page 

Preparing  the  Drawings .  7  38 

Designs  for  Zinc  Etchings .  7  41 

Paper  Covers .  7  42 

Requisites  in  Doing  Successful  Bookcover 

Designing  .  7  46 

Book  Plates .  7  47 

Style  of  Rendering  .  7  56 

Lettering .  7  56 

Carpet  Designing 

Brussels  and  Wilton  Carpets .  8  1 

Designing  .  8  5 

Oriental  Rugs .  8  19 

Oilcloth  and  Linoleum  Designing 

Printing  Oilcloths .  9  1 

The  Printing  Process  .  9  3 

The  Designs .  9  6 

Wallpaper  Designing 

Manufacture  of  Wallpaper . 10  1 

Preparing  the  Design  . 10  12 

Principles  of  Wall  Decoration . 10  22 

The  American  Vignola 

The  Five  Orders . 11  9 

Introduction . 11  9 

Mouldings,  Plate  I . 11  13 

The  Orders . 11  17 

Vignola’s  Orders,  Plate  II . 11  27 

The  Tuscan  Order,  Plates  III  and  IV  .  .  11  29 

Table  of  the  Tuscan  Order,  Plates  V,  VI, 

and  VII . 11  30 

The  Doric  Order,  Plates  VII,  VIII,  IX, 

and  X . 11  30 

Table  of  the  Doric  Order,  Plates  VII,  VIII, 

IX,  and  X . 11  38 

The  Ionic  Order,  Plates  VIII  and  IX  .  .  11  39 


CONTENTS 


v 


The  American  Vignola — Continued  Section  Page 

Table  of  the  Ionic  Order,  Plates  XI,  XII, 

and  XIII . 11  46 

The  Corinthian  Order,  Plates  X  and  XI  .  11  47 

Table  of  the  Corinthian  Order,  Plates  XIV, 

XV,  and  XVI . 11  52 

The  Composite  Order,  Plates  XII  and  XIII  11  53 

Table  of  the  Composite  Order,  Plates  XVII 

and  XVIII . 11  57 

Geometrical  Relations . 11  57 

Drawing . 11  65 

The  Greek  Orders . 11  75 

Pilasters,  Plate  XVI . 11  85 

Pedestals,  Plate  XVI . 11  87 

Attics  . 11  91 

Pediments,  Plate  XVII . 11  92 

Intercolumniation,  or  the  Spacing  of  Col¬ 
umns,  Plate  XVIII . 11  96 

Doric  Intercolumniations . 11  98 

Superposition,  Plate  XVIII . 11  99 

Other  Cornices  and  String-Courses  ...  11  102 

Color  Harmony 

Introduction . 12  1 

Primary  Colors .  .12  3 

Secondary  Colors . 12  4 

Position  of  Colors  in  the  Chromatic  Scale  12  4 

Neutral  Tints . 12  7 

Producing  Harmony . 12  7 

Making  a  Color  Card . 12  9 

Plate,  Historic  Ornament . 12  11 

Plate,  Natural  Forms . 12  21 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  In  preparing  a  design  for  any  purpose  whatsoever,  one 
must  have  a  type  or  form  on  which  to  base  it.  These  types 
are  usually  considered  elements  of  ornament  and  may  be 
divided,  generally  speaking,  into  two  distinct  classes — the 
artificial  and  the  natural — and  although  these  are  subdivided 
into  three  classes,  it  is  not  necessary  to  enumerate  them 
except  as  they  appear. 

A  designer  should  have  clearly  before  his  mind  the  general 
characteristics  of  the  type  or  form  or  element  of  ornament 
on  which  he  is  to  base  his  design,  and  should  be  able  to  work 
intelligently  from  this  point  to  the  completion  of  his  design. 
In  order  to  do  this,  it  is  necessary  that  he  shall  have  studied 
the  designs  of  others  and  be  able  to  analyze  them  for  their 
good  points,  or  to  criticize  their  poor  points.  If  he  has  these 
designs  close  at  hand  when  he  is  working  out  a  design,  they 
may  be  of  assistance  to  him,  but  under  no  circumstances 
should  he  copy  the  idea  or  the  details  of  another  design,  as 
by  so  doing  he  becomes  a  simple  machine  and  an  imitator 
and  tends  to  destroy  his  own  originality  and  make  himself 
dependent  on  the  originality  of  others. 

While  many  designers  depend  entirely  for  their  motifs  on 
the  efforts  of  some  one  else,  the  successful  designers  are 
those  that  are  independent  of  such  methods  and  take  their 
inspiration  directly  from  nature.  It  is  not  unusual  to  see  the 
carpet  designer  appropriate  the  work  of  the  wallpaper  designer 
without  considering  the  fitness  of  the  pattern  to  its  applica¬ 
tion  or  purpose.  On  the  other  hand,  the  average  wallpaper 
designer  tends  to  get  into  a  rut  and  make  his  design  simply 

For  notice  of  copyright ,  see  page  immediately  following  the  title  page 


2 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


5 


variations  of  the  designs  of  others,  instead  of  inventing  them 
himself.  In  recent  years  there  have  been  many  publications 
of  plant  studies  and  other  floral  forms  that  furnish  motifs 
on  which  designs  will  be  built,  and  though  excellent  in  them¬ 
selves  these  motifs  are  public  property  and  are  sought  and 
seized  by  so  many  designers  that  they  soon  become  com¬ 
monplace  and  we  see  them  applied  to  all  sorts  of  things. 

It  is  a  waste  of  time  for  any  designer  to  learn  to  apply  the 
designs  of  others;  the  factory  does  this,  and  it  is  useless  to 
waste  time  copying  designs  that  have  already  been  manufac¬ 
tured,  except  where  such  copying  may  be  required  to  learn 
the  technique.  If  the  American  designer  could  be  thoroughly 
impressed  with  the  uselessness  of  adapting  the  designs  of 
others,  the  leading  manufacturers  and  merchants  of  this 
country  would  not  go  abroad  for  their  designs,  as  they 
do  at  present. 

The  designer  must  be  able  to  draw  and  to  color,  and  must 
understand  the  principles  and  elements  of  design;  then,  with 
the  requisite  material  to  build  up  a  pattern,  he  can  create  one 
that  is  entirely  and  exclusively  his  own.  Suggestions  may 
be  drawn  from  the  great  historic  styles  of  conventional  orna¬ 
ment,  but  they  must  be  used  with  the  greatest  judgment  in 
all  fields  of  design.  But  the  great  fountain  head  for  inspira¬ 
tion  is  nature,  in  all  its  forms.  Nature  furnishes  an  inex¬ 
haustible  supply  of  material  that  can  be  suited  to  any 
purposes  of  design  whatsoever.  However,  in  adapting 
nature  forms  to  the  purposes  of  design  they  must  always 
be  more  or  less  conventionalized. 


CONVENTIONALISM 

2.  Definition  of  Conventionalism. — One  of  the 
greatest  difficulties  that  the  beginner  in  design  experiences 
is  the  proper  appreciation  and  application  of  conventionalism 
in  his  work.  To  the  untrained  mind,  conventionalism  is 
symbolic  of  stiffness,  but  nothing  could  be  further  from  the 
truth.  Simply  stated,  conventionalism  consists  in  adapt¬ 
ing  the  form  to  the  purpose  and  material  for  which  the 


5 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


3 


design  is  made;  it  is  a  simple  treatment  of  natural  forms 
made  necessary  by  the  simple  laws  of  beauty. 

A  certain  amount  of  naturalistic  rendering  can  be  com¬ 
bined  with  conventionalism  in  some  instances,  whereas  in 
others  the  conventionalism  can  be  carried  to  so  severe  an 
extent  that  the  natural  form  on  which  it  is  based  is  entirely 
lost.  The  designer  can  adapt  to  his  purpose  a  form  in 
nature,  but  can  conventionalize  it  so  that  it  no  longer  repre¬ 
sents  the  form.  However,  it  will  be  ornamental  and  there¬ 
fore  worthy  of  its  own  existence.  The  Egyptian  lotus,  as 
seen  carved  and  painted  on  the  walls  of  the  tombs  and 
temples,  is  sufficiently  like  a  lotus  to  call  to  mind  the  flower, 
and  we  accept  it  as  a  decoration  and  do  not  criticize  it  as  a 
portrait.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Greek  anthemion  is  a 
similar  decoration,  but  entirely  free  from  any  suggestion 
of  the  honeysuckle  or  other  type  on  which  it  may  have  been 
based.  The  former  is  a  case  of  conventionalism  that  does 
not  destroy  the  type;  the  latter,  a  case  where  conven¬ 
tionalism  has  been  carried  so  far  that  the  original  motif 
has  become  extinguished. 

3.  In  this  age,  the  artist  and  the  manufacturer  are 
inclined  to  be  carried  away  by  skill  in  handiwork,  to  the 
exclusion  of  proper  brain  application.  The  evidence  of  skill 
in  a  finished  fabric  is  entirely  out  of  place,  unless  the  skill 
is  intimately  associated  with  the  design.  We  see  the  weaver 
and  the  loom  fixer  delighted  as  they  display  to  us  in  triumph 
what  appears  to  be  a  very  commonplace  portrait  or  engra¬ 
ving  executed  in  monochrome.  It  is  a  picture,  but  woven  on 
the  loom.  Infinite  pains  have  been  taken  to  arrange  the 
machine  and  details  of  the  harness  or  jacquards  to  produce 
something  that  is  entirely  out  of  place  and  outside  of  the 
province  for  which  the  loom  was  invented.  If  a  picture  were 
wanted,  an  infinitely  better  picture  could  have  been  produced 
by  other  means;  and  if  a  fabric  were  wanted,  a  superior 
fabric  could  have  been  woven  with  a  more  conventional 
design.  Here  we  have  but  a  poor  imitation  of  the  engraver’s 
art  executed  by  the  weaver.  What  would  we  say  were  the 


4 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


§5 


Fig.  1 


§5 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


5 


problem  reversed,  and  the  engraver  should  execute  his 
pictures  to  appear  as  though  they  were  composed  of  silk  or 
cotton?  In  either  case  the  fabric  is  useless  for  what  it  is, 
and  unsuitable  for  what  it  imitates. 

Any  object  of  art  should  appear  exactly  and  honestly  to 
be  just  what  it  is,  and  to  be  most  pleasing  and  satisfactory 
it  must  present  the  appearance  of  having  been  produced 
with  great  ease,  and  not  with  infinite  pains.  The  simpler 
the  appearance  of  a  design,  usually  the  more  brain  work  is 
spent  in  making  it.  The  loom  has  a  legitimate  province 
that  should  not  be  lowered  or  degraded  by  making  it  pro¬ 
duce  freaks.  Conventionalism,  therefore,  consists  in  pre¬ 
paring  natural  forms  to  suit  them  to  the  material  in  which 
they  are  to  be  executed. 

4.  Classes  of  Designs. — Designs  in  general  can  be 
divided  into  three  classes:  (1)  those  that  are  purely  natural¬ 
istic  and  reproduce  pictorially  the  form  or  type  on  which 
they  are  based,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1;  (2)  those  that  are 
semiconventional  or  decorative— a  combination  of  natural¬ 
istic  rendering  with  but  slight  modification,  in  order  that  it 
may  be  printed,  woven,  or  stamped  on  the  fabric  which 
receives  it  without  pretending  to  be  different  from  what  it 
is,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2;  (3)  those  that  are  purely  conventional, 
and  do  not  pretend  in  any  way  to  represent  the  natural  form 
on  which  they  are  based,  except  to  recall  it  to  the  mind,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  3. 

5.  Evolving  Conventional  Forms  for  Designs. — The 

evolving  of  conventional  forms  from  nature  requires  not  only 
ingenuity  but  also  a  very  good  sense  of  what  is  fitting  in 
design.  It  necessitates  an  artificial  training  in  contradistinc¬ 
tion  to  nature  treatment  that  is  a  mere  copying  of  a  natural 
form.  Conventional  rendering  is  a  step  in  advance  of  nature 
rendering,  although  many  persons,  ignorant  of  the  princi¬ 
ples  of  art  and  design,  are  inclined  to  look  on  it  as  a 
degrading  of  nature’s  forms  to  suit  the  necessities  of  machin¬ 
ery  printing  or  weaving,  and  consequently  an  improperly 
trained  designer  endeavors  to  disguise  the  fact  that  his 


6 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


§5 


Fig.  2 


§5 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


7 


design  is  made  by  the  machine  and  tries  to  represent  it  as  a 
piece  of  hand  work.  This  is  entirely  a  wrong  idea;  just  as 
wrong  as  the  rendering  of  a  picture  would  be  in  a  piece  of 
textile  fabric.  Machine  work  at  its  best  does  not  possess 
the  soul  and  individuality  of  hand  work,  and  often  a  medi¬ 
ocre  piece  of  machine  work  is  better  than  an  excellent  repro¬ 
duction  of  hand  work,  since  it  tells  the  truth.  Nature 
furnishes  us  with  an  abundance  of  raw  material  that  is  acted 
on  by  the  lines  of  the  artist  and  transmuted  into  ornament. 
It  cannot  be  accomplished  without  taxing  the  highest  intel¬ 
lectual  faculties  that  the  designer  possesses — his  powers  of 
invention  and  creation.  It  will  be  observed  in  the  study  of 
historic  ornament  that  each  period  when  ornamental  design 
reached  a  high  standard  has  been  marked  by  a  more  than 
ordinarily  popular  existence  of  the  standard  of  the  most 
cultivated  artists;  and  so,  should  the  public  become  so  trained 
that  its  taste  is  in  accordance  with  that  of  the  best  artists, 
we  shall  again  have  the  period  of  perfect  and  universal  art 
snnilar  to  that  which  existed  in  Greece  during  the  age  of 
Pericles. 

In  purely  naturalistic  design,  irregularity  or  diversity  of 
arrangement  is  aimed  at;  the  simulation  of  the  picturesque 
element  in  nature  is  what  the  designer  strives  for.  He 
endeavors  to  duplicate  light  and  shade  effects,  dainty  grada¬ 
tions  of  color,  peculiar  and  even  decided  forms  of  leaf  and 
flower,  and  to  counterfeit  the  original  in  every  detail.  When 
such  an  artist  endeavors  to  apply  his  talents  to  designing, 
his  productions  are  in  no  way  suited  for  the  purpose  because 
they  are  not  fit  for  printing  or  weaving  by  mechanical 
means,  and  as  a  consequence  the  highest  grade  of  mechanical 
skill  and  machinery  is  required  to  produce  them.  This  is  a 
direct  waste  of  good  energy.  A  student,  especially  a  beginner, 
should  avoid  rendering  purely  naturalistic  designs.  There  is 
plenty  of  opportunity  to  dispose  of  designs  that  are  less  beau¬ 
tiful  in  artistic  merit  and  call  for  less  skill  and  inventive  genius 
in  manufacture.  The  designs  that  the  manufacturer  most 
desires  are  those  that  are  beautiful  in  themselves  and  require 
the  least  effort  in  converting  into  a  finished  fabric. 


8 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


§5 


Fig.  3 


§5 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


9 


6.  Lewis  F.  Day,  one  of  the  greatest  English  designers, 
says  in  his  textbook  on  ornamental  design:  “To  introduce 
an  element  into  ornament  is  simple  enough.  The  difficulty 
is  to  know  just  how  far  it  should  be  allowed  to  go.  It  is  so 
fascinating,  so  seductive,  so  self-satisfying  that  it  threatens 
the  very  existence  of  decorative  art,  yet  where  shall  we 
draw  the  line?  It  is  as  difficult  to  make  ornament  natural 
enough  to  satisfy  the  public  as  it  is  to  modify  nature  to 
sufficiently  please  the  ornamenters.  Good  art  and  nature  are 
always  encroaching  one  on  the  other,  as  the  sea  upon  the 
shore  and  the  shore  upon  the  sea.  In  every  generation  the 
coast  rectifies  itself,  and  every  day  tides  vary.  It  becomes, 
therefore,  quite  impossible  to  define  rigidly  the  elements  of 
nature  and  of  art  in  ornament.  The  cautious  man  will  always 
keep  carefully  within  bounds,  the  adventurous  will  as  surely 
be  attracted  by  the  beauties  that  belong  to  the  border  land,  and 
the  very  sense  of  danger  will  quicken  his  delight  in  them.” 

William  Morris,  the  celebrated  craftsman  and  writer,  says: 
“Beauty  combined  with  invention  and  founded  upon  care¬ 
ful  observation  of  nature  is  the  mainspring  of  decorative 
design.  If  a  design  is  not  beautiful  it  has  no  right  to  exist; 
if  it  is  not  inventive  it  becomes  wearisome;  and  if  it  is  not 
founded  upon  observation  of  nature,  it  is  not  likely  to  be 
either  beautiful  or  inventive.” 

In  Fig.  4  are  represented  several  of  Mr.  Morris’s  designs, 
and  one  can  see  that  he  was  frequently  attracted  by  beauties 
that  belong  to  the  border  land  between  nature  and  invention. 
There  is  much  to  be  studied  concerning  this  so-called  border 
land,  which  really  embraces  what  was  previously  referred  to 
as  a  decorative  treatment  of  natural  forms.  This  border 
land  is  not  a  safe  ground  for  the  student,  especially  the 
beginner,  to  study,  but  it  is  a  sort  of  middle  ground 
between  purely  naturalistic  rendering  and  the  conventional 
rendering,  on  which  the  skilled  designer  and  the  unskilled 
public  can  meet  and  both  experience  a  certain  amount  of 
satisfaction.  The  inexperienced  public  requires  a  design 
that  is  a  counterfeit  of  nature,  the  cautious  designer  prefers 
a  design  that  pretends  to  be  nothing  more  than  what  it  is, 


10 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


5 


§5 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


11 


but  is  in  itself  beautiful.  The  designs  on  this  so-called 
middle  ground  imitate  nature  sufficiently  to  suit  the  public 
and  at  the  same  time  call  on  the  designer  to  use  all  his 
ingenuity  and  powers  of  invention  in  conformity  with  the 
laws  of  beauty.  During  every  period  of  history  imitative 
ornament  has  been  popular  with  the  people  at  large.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  at  any  time  pure  ornament,  as  such,  has 
been  popular.  A  comparative  small  minority  of  highly  culti¬ 
vated  artists  may  have  imposed  their  tastes  on  a  people  for 
a  time,  or  a  deep  religious  belief  may  have  sufficed  to  coun¬ 
teract  the  natural  leaning  toward  natural  forms;  but  for  all 
that  the  leaning  is  natural. 

7.  Influence  of  Natural  Forms  on  Ornament. — In 

no  case  is  pure  ornament  entirely  independent  of  nature,  as 
nature  is  the  source  of  all  ornament  that  is  beautiful  in 
form.  If  it  were  not  for  the  influences  of  nature  in  natural 
forms,  man’s  imagination  would  be  incapable  of  producing 
the  grace,  the  growth,  the  flow  of  line  and  delicacy  that 
delight  us  in  a  satisfactorily  executed  design.  These  influ¬ 
ences  are  usually  undetected  and  indirect,  so  indirect  in  fact 
that  the  majority  of  persons  do  not  feel  them  at  all.  But  if 
the  masses  are  to  be  led  to  ultimately  appreciate  ornament 
in  its  purest  sense,  they  must  be  led  gradually  to  the  style 
of  decoration  that  is  distinctly  allied  to  imitation. 

The  approach  to  ornament,  pure  and  simple,  for  its  own 
sake  must  be  gradual  and  cautious,  for  if  the  departing  from 
imitation  be  too  sudden  the  minds  of  the  masses  will  not  grasp 
the  situation  and  will  give  up  their  progress  of  improvement 
and  go  back  to  their  old  naturalistic  renderings.  At  the 
present  time  there  is  being  introduced  into  this  country 
a  very  powerful  influence  on  design,  usually  called  L' Art 
Nouveau,  a  French  term  meaning  new  art,  although  as  a  matter 
of  fact  there  is  nothing  new  about  it.  Its  origin  in  France 
and  Germany  was  probably  due  to  a  revulsion  of  feeling 
against  the  continuous  copying  of  old  conventional  styles. 

8.  IT Art  Nouveau  is  simply  an  attempt  to  create  some¬ 
thing  fresh  and  original  and  inspired  by  nature.  Like 


12 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


§5 


everything  new  and  popular,  it  has  been  greatly  abused 
by  its  improper  application  to  architectural  forms  without 
proper  thought.  The  inventors  or  creators  of  L’Art  Nouveau 
went  to  nature  for  their  inspirations,  whereas  many  of  the 
so-called  designs  executed  in  this  style  are  simply  copies  of 
other  designs  without  any  direct  inspiration  of  nature  at  all. 
Notwithstanding  this,  we  find  the  graceful  lines  and  the 
novel  arrangements  of  the  masses  that  especially  adapt  this 
style  of  decoration  to  surface  work.  It  resembles  strongly 
the  Japanese  method  of  working  and  has  undoubtedly  been 
inspired  somewhat  by  this  nation,  who  are  very  close 
students  of  nature  and  have  shown  an  especial  appreciation 
of  the  decorative  in  nature.  They  have  taught  us  how  to 
group  and  compose  new  forms  effectively,  both  in  groups 
and  as  single  objects,  and  this  without  any  violation  of  the 
laws  of  proportion,  balance,  and  harmony,  by  the  use  and 
application  of  the  subtile  curves  and  arrangements  that  dis¬ 
cerning  students  ever  find  in  nature.  In  other  words,  the 
Japanese  are  noted  for  instilling  into  their  designs  natural 
curves  without  copying  the  plant  itself  nor  yet  departing 
entirely  from  the  naturalistic  rendering. 

While  we  will  never  arrive  at  any  definite  agreement  with 
the  public  concerning  how  much  naturalistic  rendering 
shall  be  included  in  a  design  and  to  what  extent  natural 
forms  shall  be  conventionalized,  we  must  be  assured  that 
the  designer,  to  make  any  progress  in  originality,  must  be 
inventive  and  ingenious,  and  must  draw  inspiration  from 
nature. 


§5 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


13 


NATURE  STUDY 

9.  Although  the  subject  of  this  Section  is  plant  analysis, 
it  must  not  be  confused  with  botanical  analysis.  In  the 
present  case  we  are  concerned  simply  with  the  appearances 
and  general  aspects  of  the  plant  and  its  various  parts  in  so 
far  as  they  can  be  used  as  ornament.  We  are  not  concerned 
with  the  functions  of  these  parts  nor  with  the  physiological 
relations,  as  in  the  study  of  botany.  In  studying  plant  anal¬ 
ysis,  we  must  take  into  consideration  the  leaves  and  the 
blossoms  as  well  as  the  general  growth  and  characteristics 
of  growth  that  are  observable  in  the  plant.  This  means  that 
we  must  study  the  character  of  the  stems,  their  manner  of 
branching,  the  attachment  of  the  leaves  and  the  blossoms, 
and  the  general  appearance  of  the  roots. 

A  maple  tree  is  essentially  different  in  appearance  from  a 
poplar  tree;  this  we  are  able  to  recognize  at  once  owing  to  its 
difference  in  growth.  Closer  inspection  shows  a  difference  in 
the  form  and  color  of  the  leaves,  in  the  manner  in  which  the 
leaves  branch  from  the  stems,  etc.  It  is  not  these  minor  dif¬ 
ferences,  however,  that  enable  us  to  determine,  at  a  glance, 
the  difference  between  two  kinds  of  trees.  In  the  smaller 
growths,  such  as  shrubs,  vines,  and  single  flowers,  we  are  not 
so  familiar  with  the  characteristic  differences  as  to  be  able  to 
recognize  at  a  glance  one  plant  from  another,  unless  it  be  in 
blossom  or  unless  its  characteristic  feature  be  very  evident. 
The  ordinary  student,  however,  must  give  attention  to  these 
characteristic  features  and  intelligently  apply  them  in  his 
decorated  designs  without  violating  any  natural  law  but  sim¬ 
ply  applying  natural  laws  to  decorative  purposes.  In  order  to 
accomplish  this,  a  series  of  drawn  studies  should  be  made  of 
flowers  and  of  leaves,  not  only  singly,  but  also  in  clusters. 
Positions  of  various  parts  should  be  changed,  care  being 
exercised  to  so  arrange  them  that  the  views  will  bring  into 
prominence  the  most  characteristic  details  of  each  plant. 


14 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


5 


10.  Analytic  Study  of  Plants. — In  making  analytic 
studies  of  flowers,  the  blossom  should  be  first  drawn  as  it 
appears  in  nature,  accompanied  by  two  or  more  leaves. 
It  should  then  be  pulled  apart  and  each  petal  drawn  sepa¬ 
rately.  The  removal  of  the  petals  may  leave  naked  the 
calyx  and  pistils,  which  also  should  be  studied.  The  part 
remaining  after  all  the  petals  have  fallen  from  natural  causes 
is  frequently  as  interesting  as  the  entire  blossom.  Here  is 
the  matured  seed  vessel  from  which  the  infant  plant  will 
eventually  spring;  therefore,  here  is  the  material  for  a  new 
series  of  study  and  endless  changes  may  be  expressed  from 
the  sprouting  of  the  seed  to  the  matured  fruit.  This  in  its 
application  to  design  may  form  the  theme  of  the  entire 
design  more  prominently  than  the  characteristics  of  the 
flower  itself.  A  growing  plant  is  full  of  interest,  a  growing 
design  is  likewise  full  of  interest,  and  the  subject  on  which 
a  design  is  placed  can  be  delicate  or  strong. 

The  designer  must  be  so  familiar  with  various  types  of 
plant  that  he  can  draw  them  from  memory  or  construct  them 
in  detail  from  scanty  and  hurriedly  made  notes. 

11.  Exercises  in  Conventional  Rendering. — As  an 
exercise  in  this  branch  of  study,  arrange  on  a  sheet  of  draw¬ 
ing  paper  a  series  of  drawings  of  any  simple  plant  arranged 
somewhat  as  shown  in  Fig.  5.  These  should  be  drawn 
carefully  in  pencil  and  then  filled  in  with  flat  washes  of  color 
and  outlined  with  a  heavy  dark  line  laid  on  with  a  small 
brush.  No  attempt  at  light  and  shade  should  be  expressed, 
although  more  than  one  tone  may  be  employed  in  order  to 
express  the  different  parts  if  it  is  necessary  in  order  to  make 
the  rendering  more  intelligible. 

No  attempt  should  be  made  to  maintain  a  continuous  wash 
from  one  part  to  another.  For  instance,  where  two  sides  of 
a  leaf  are  expressed,  the  rib  down  the  center  can  best  be 
expressed  by  leaving  a  narrow  stripe  of  the  white  paper. 
The  colors  used  need  not  necessarily  be  the  exact  shades 
that  indicate  the  plant  nor  even  the  color  of  the  blossom,  as 
these  are  decorative  studies  and  not  portraits  of  the  flower, 


Fig.  6 


1 4590 


§5 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


15 


and  the  student  must  learn  at  once  that  in  using  a  given  plant 
as  a  basis  of  design  he  is  at  perfect  liberty  to  represent  the 
conventional  form  of  that  plant  in  any  color  he  chooses.  In 
wallpaper,  carpet,  and  other  mechanically  reproduced  designs, 
we  frequently  see  flowers  and  their  leaves  expressed  in  two 
tones  of  the  same  color  or  in  tones  of  different  colors,  neither 
of  which  is  the  characteristic  color  of  the  original  flower  or 
leaf.  Without  proper  thought  this  may  seem  at  first  incon¬ 
gruous,  but  in  this  independence  of  color  scheme  lies  the  key 
to  conventionalism.  We  adopt  a  floral  form  because  it  is  beau¬ 
tiful;  we  adapt  it  to  the  purpose  of  design  by  reducing  it  to 
a  conventional  form  and  it  then  no  longer  becomes  a  natur¬ 
alistic  flower  and  need  no  longer  possess  a  naturalistic  color. 
If  we  make  a  drawing  or  a  painting  of  any  natural  scene  in 
pencil  or  in  India  ink,  or  in  brown  sepia,  the  finished  sketch 
is  pleasing  to  the  eye  and  no  one  demands  that  the  tree 
should  be  green  and  the  sky  should  be  blue,  because  we 
recognize  that  the  drawing  is  made  in  sepia  or  in  black  and 
white.  On  the  other  hand,  when  we  reproduce  a  conven¬ 
tionalized  floral  form  in  a  carpet  or  in  a  wallpaper,  no  one 
should  demand  that  the  roses  should  be  red  and  the  leaves 
should  be  green,  for  he  should  understand  that  this  is  a 
decoration  and  not  a  portrait. 

Adherence  to  the  positive  colors  expressed  in  nature  is 
the  cause  of  many  unsatisfactory  designs,  and  the  beginner 
can  do  better  work  when  he  realizes  that  his  color  harmony 
is  independent  of  his  basis  of  design. 


OUTLINING  AND  RENDERING 
12.  Simplicity  and  Freedom  of  Rendering. — Let  the 
outlines  in  all  drawings  of  plant  analysis  be  bold  and  free. 
Do  not  attempt  to  make  them  stiff,  symmetrical,  or  thin  and 
unvaried  in  width.  Let  them  break  at  intervals  where  it  is 
convenient  to  stop  the  end  of  a  stroke.  Let  all  drawings  be 
truthful,  and  if  a  line  is  drawn  in  two  strokes  with  a  brush 
or  pencil,  do  not  make  it  appear  as  if  it  were  drawn  in  one 
stroke.  Observe,  in  Fig.  6,  a  Japanese  drawing  of  the  leaf 


16 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


5 


and  fruit  of  the  native  currant.  No  attempt  has  been  made 
here  to  detail  each  form  laboriously.  The  whole  is  sketched 
in  rapidly  but  skilfully,  and  expresses  in  the  outline  and 
veining  of  the  leaf,  in  the  jagged  irregularity  of  the  stem,  in 
the  peculiar  clustering  of  the  fruit  and  the  curling  of  the 


tendril,  all  the  characteristics  of  this  plant.  The  American 
grape  is  similar  to  it  and  possesses  similar  characteristics, 
except  the  bunches  of  the  fruit  are  different  in  form. 

The  student  should  make  a  series  of  not  less  than  ten 
studies  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  5,  using  a  separate  type  of 


§5 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


17 


plant  for  each  study.  The  work  can  be  varied  from  time  to 
time  by  indicating  the  effect  of  light  and  shade  by  using 
two  tones,  each  tone,  however,  being  expressed  as  an  inde¬ 
pendent  wash  from  its  neighbor  and  not  as  a  blending  of  one 
tone  into  another.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  or  the  study 
will  degenerate  into  a  naturalistic  treatment.  Do  not  forget 
the  purpose  for  which  the  study  is  being  made.  When 
pictures  are  wanted,  take  the  time  to  make  good  shaded 
drawings  with  pencil  or  water  color;  but  in  studying  plant 
analysis  for  design  purposes,  bear  in  mind  that  the  design 
represents  characteristics  common  to  every  plant  of  its  kind 
and  not  the  characteristics  of  some  individual  specimen.  In 
rendering  the  views  of  the  leaves  in  Fig.  5,  the  back  of  the 
leaf,  where  it  shows  in  the  side  view,  could  be  rendered  a 
lighter  or  a  darker  color  than  the  front  of  the  leaf,  as  this 
would  likely  be  the  case  in  nature,  or  one  side  of  the 
leaf  might  be  lighter  and  darker  in  color  than  the  opposite 
side,  the  line  of  demarcation  being  expressed  by  the  vein. 
These  two  sides  could  be  expressed  in  different  tones,  but 
this  should  be  characteristic  of  all  leaves  and  not  expressed 
to  represent  any  particular  specimen. 

13.  Overelaboration  to  Be  Avoided. — The  noticeable 
inferiority  in  the  work  of  beginners  is  an  evidence  that  much 
time  has  been  spent  in  elaborating  some  unnecessary  and 
useless  detail,  such  as  the  accidental  discoloration  of  a 
flower  or  a  leaf,  or  the  worm  eaten  parts  of  a  plant,  while  he 
has  overlooked  other  details  that  are  characteristic  of  the 
growth  itself.  Worm  holes  are  not  a  detail  of  plant  study 
from  an  art  standpoint.  If  a  design  were  to  include  insect 
life  as  well  as  plant  life  it  might  be  well  to  express  the 
details  arising  from  the  relations  of  one  to  the  other,  but 
accidental  formations,  discolorations,  and  deformities  form 
no  part  of  the  conventionalizing  of  natural  forms. 

The  drawing  may  express  the  fullness  of  life  and  vigor  of 
the  plant.  Specimens  for  study  should  be  typical  of  the 
species,  and  should  be  gathered  while  they  are  in  full 
maturity  and  in  the  best  of  condition.  Many  plants  wither 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


18 


§5 


almost  immediately  after  being  cut;  these  should,  as  fre¬ 
quently  as  possible,  be  studied  while  growing. 

Another  characteristic  of  the  beginner’s  work  is  his 
tendency  to  exaggerate  details.  His  tendency  in  drawing  a 
small  object  is  to  make  it  too  small  and  of  a  large  object  to 
make  it  too  large.  Large,  vigorous  leaves  and  blossoms  are 
frequently  perched  on  the  end  of  a  thin,  puny  stem  that  in 
reality  would  not  be  able  to  transmit  sap  enough  to  support 
them.  The  tendency  in  the  other  direction  is  far  more 
commendable  if  not  carried  to  excess.  The  stem  can  afford 
to  be  thickened  in  plant  analysis  beyond  its  natural  form  and 
large  leaves  and  flowers  may  be  reduced.  In  the  analysis  of 
small  flowers  it  is  far  better  that  they  should  be  drawn  on  a 
larger  scale  than  on  their  own  or  a  smaller  scale.  A  magni¬ 
fying  glass  will  assist  the  student  in  this  work. 

14.  Studies  of  Plant  Life. — Studies  of  stems,  both 
soft  and  woody,  should  be  made  by  themselves.  Tendrils 
and  seed  cupules  of  various  kinds  should  also  be  studied. 
These  forms  are  not  so  interesting  to  the  designer  and 
are  apt  to  be  overlooked,  or  when  introduced  into  a  design 
are  badly  expressed  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  designer  has 
not  given  them  proper  attention.  Practical  work  of  this  kind 
will  fix  in  the  mind  the  important  relation  that  these  forms 
bear  to  the  character  of  the  whole  plant.  Fig.  7  illustrates 
some  studies  of  this  character  executed  by  students  in  design. 
Studies  of  this  character  should  be  frequently  made  and 
preserved  for  future  reference. 

In  Fig.  8  is  shown  an  analysis  of  the  common  dandelion. 
This  simple  little  flower  is  rich  in  suggestion  and  the  various 
renderings  of  it  in  this  illustration  serve  to  emphasize  its 
characteristics.  Note  the  beautiful  rendering  of  the  sharply 
indentated  leaf,  the  delicate,  crystal-like,  globular  enclosure 
of  the  seed  vessel,  the  simple,  star-like  expansion  of  the  full 
blossom,  and  the  relation  of  light  and  shade  values  in  the 
conventional  cluster  including  all  three  forms.  The  light 
and  shade  here  is  not  natural  but  conventional;  the  back¬ 
ground  leaves  are  lighter  than  the  foreground  leaves  and 


Fig.  7 


Fig.  8 


§5 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


21 


show  their  positions  by  contrast  of  color.  The  stems  are 
occasionally  expressed  by  a  darker  tone  and  equally  often 
by  a  lighter  tone  or  a  strip  of  white  showing  through.  No 
attempt  has  been  made  at  portraiture,  but  simply  a  record  of 
the  characteristics  of  the  plant.  It  may  be  pointed  out  again 
right  here  that  drawing  bears  the  same  relation  to  design 
that  writing  does  to  liter¬ 
ature;  each  is  a  method 
of  making  a  record  of 
what  we  see  or  what  we 
think.  If  one  could  write 
out  the  details  of  a  flower 
and  express  it  to  his  fel¬ 
low  creature  as  well  as  by 
drawing,  writing  might  be 
the  medium  of  expres¬ 
sion  instead  of  drawing. 

Nations  that  possess  no 
simplified  form  of  hand¬ 
writing  convey  their  ideas 
to  one  another  by  means 
of  drawings,  an  abund¬ 
ance  of  which  are  found  in 
the  hieroglyphs  of  Egypt. 

Therefore,  studies  like 
those  shown  in  Fig.  8 
should  simply  be  graphic 
records  of  facts.  Fig.  9 
shows  the  further  appli¬ 
cation  of  such  graphically 
recorded  facts  in  a  design 
wherein  the  sinuous  char¬ 
acter  of  the  natural  stem 
growth  is  taken  advantage  of  to  fill  the  spaces  between  the 
spots  formed  by  the  blossoms  It  is  easily  recognizable 
that  Fig.  9  is  not  a  portrayal  of  nature,  but  it  possesses  all 
the  characteristics  of  the  natural  growth. 

In  Fig.  10  is  shown  another  study  by  a  student  wherein  the 


22 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


§5 


application  of  the  natural  form  to  various  purposes  is 
illustrated.  In  the  upper  left-hand  corner  is  a  naturalistic 
rendering  or  portrayal  of  the  scarlet  nasturtium.  The  form 
of  the  blossom  and  bud  together  with  the  stems  and  leaves 
are  clearly  illustrated,  while  just  below  them  the  conventional 
rendering  of  the  blossom  and  leaves  shows  their  reduction  to 
conventionalized  forms  for  the  purposes  of  design.  Rosettes 
are  made  up  of  the  details  of  the  growth.  Suitable  orna¬ 
mental  forms  for  borders  or  panel  decorations  are  made  up  of 
combined  leaf  and  blossom  effects,  while  at  the  lower  right- 
hand  corner  the  bud,  the  blossom,  the  soft  twining  stems,  and 
flat,  nearly  circular,  leaf  are  combined  in  a  regular  pattern 
that  expresses  in  the  most  conventional  manner  the  principles 
of  growth  rather  than  the  character  of  the  flower  itself. 

Every  plant  is  just  as  worthy  of  study  as  the  nasturtium, 
though  some  lend  themselves  more  readily  than  others  to 
application  in  decorative  design.  These,  therefore,  are 
more  frequently  seen  in  design.  The  most  prominent  in 
these  characteristics  is  the  rose,  both  the  single  wild  rose 
and  the  double  or  cultivated  rose.  The  former  of  these 
is  easy  to  draw,  exceedingly  adaptable  to  any  kind  of 
decorative  treatment,  and  is  therefore  more  prominent  than 
any  other  floral  form  in  our  modern  decorative  motives. 
The  poppy  seems  to  be  next  in  favor,  and  this  admits  of 
even  a  wider  diversity  of  treatment  than  does  the  rose, 
owing  to  the  greater  variety  in  the  form  of  the  leaf  and  the 
flower,  but  it  is  more  difficult  to  draw  and  therefore  does  not 
find  so  much  favor  with  the  imskilled.  But  the  iris,  peony, 
thistle,  daffodil,  hollyhock,  and  numerous  other  bold,  striking 
flowers  are  frequently  seen  in  modern  decorative  designs 
and  lend  themselves  readily  to  decorative  treatment. 


DECORATIVE  TREATMENT 
15.  Some  Examples  of  Decorative  Treatment. 

The  designs  executed  by  William  Morris,  Fig.  4,  are  charac¬ 
teristic  of  the  peculiar  decorative  treatment  that  was 
strongly  influenced  by  the  Gothic  style  of  architecture  in 
England.  It  is  based  on  the  old  Gothic  tapestry  and  mural 


»-ri~.r«;i  »» 


Pig.  10 


§5 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


23 


decorations,  and  severely  conventionalizes  the  forms  that 
it  borrows  without  servilely  imitating  nature.  In  Fig.  9  and 
also  in  Figs.  11  to  13,  however,  are  shown  some  modern 
designs  based  on  the  so-called  L’Art  Nouveau,  which,  as  said 


Fig.  11 


before,  has  undoubtedly  been  influenced  by  the  study  of 
Japanese  art.  One  can  see  that,  although  these  ideas  are  bor¬ 
rowed  from  nature,  nothing  has  been  directly  copied.  Inven¬ 
tion  has  been  employed  to  give  a  fanciful  effect.  In  Figs.  9 


24 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


§5 


and  11  noticeable  features  are  introduced  into  the  decorative 
marking-  of  both  the  leaves  and  the  flowers,  regardless  of 
light  or  shade,  in  order  to  give  effect.  The  growth  has  been 


Fig. 12 


arbitrarily  arranged  and  many  examples  of  IT  Art  Nouveau  are 
extremely  sinuous.  Note  how  cleverly  the  different  forms 
are  grouped — the  flowers,  stems,  and  leaves  are  ananged 
in  masses,  showing  much  thought  and  skill.  In  this  we  find 


§5 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


25 


what  is  distinctly  a  composition  and  not  an  attempt  to 
throw  bunches  of  flowers  together  at  haphazard,  as  is  charac¬ 
teristic  of  many  naturalistic  renderings. 


Fig.  13 

Where  an  all-over  pattern  is  desired,  as  in  Fig.  9,  note 
that  it  is  obtained  by  a  clever  manipulation  of  the  forms,  the 
main  lines  being  bent  and  twisted  to  fill  in  and  balance  the 
space  they  will  occupy.  This  fanciful,  free,  and  apparently 


26 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


§5 


simple  treatment  of  plant  forms  can  be  secured  only  after 
a  long,  close  study  of  nature  and  the  handling  of  forms. 
Where  one  is  thoroughly  familiar  with  a  plant,  he  can  arrange 
it  as  he  chooses,  but  his  decorative  sense  must  direct  him 
regarding  what  points  to  emphasize  in  order  to  bring  out  the 
character  and  enhance  the  interest. 

The  student  should  frequently  plan  for  himself  exercises 
in  this  line  of  work.  For  instance,  taking  a  nasturtium,  the 
growing  plant  if  possible,  he  should  arrange  it  within  a 
given  space,  such  as  a  diamond  or  lozenge  shape,  12  inches 
high  by  6  inches  wide,  grouping  the  stems  and  leaves  and 
blossoms  as  suggested  by  the  manner  of  growth.  The  stem 
lines  should  be  sketched  in  first  and  the  flowers  and  leaves 
arranged  on  them  to  form  interesting  groupings.  If  attempts 
to  acquire  the  spirit  expressed  in  L’Art  Nouveau  should  be 
made,  it  will  be  obtained  in  a  short  time.  Note  that  the 
nasturtium  stems  are  full  of  virile  curves  and  may  be 
effectually  arranged  in  harmonious  groups;  avoid  the 
extremes  of  making  them  look  like  a  tangle  of  snakes  or 
a  mass  of  worms.  Harmonious  lines  need  not  necessarily 
be  parallel;  they  may  radiate,  be  in  contrast,  or  irregularly 
cross  one  another. 

The  same  theory  of  the  pleasing  groupings  of  lines  in 
stripes  or  in  checks  applies  to  the  grouping  of  stem  lines  in 
a  design.  Monotony  must  be  avoided  by  judicious  variation 
in  the  spacing  of  sets  of  parallel  or  nearly  parallel  lines. 

Space  may  be  filled  fully  or  partially  by  the  unit  of  the 
design.  If  a  few  flowers  are  used,  they  should  be  used  to 
balance  well  in  the  allotted  space.  By  balancing,  we  do  not 
necessarily  mean  that  they  should  be  symmetrical.  It  is  far 
better  that  the  arrangements  should  not  be  alike  on  both 
sides  of  a  center  line,  as  in  Fig.  12.  The  rendering  of  the 
design  should  be  of  the  simplest  character,  light  and  shade 
being  totally  ignored,  but  the  form,  the  characteristic  mark¬ 
ing  and  veining  should  be  emphasized  and  made  the  strongest 
element  of  the  design. 

The  lozenge  form  most  readily  permits  of  broad  group¬ 
ings,  particularly  the  forms  near  the  center  and  the  departing 


§5 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


27 


of  the  detail  toward  the  ends.  Units  of  this  character  should 
be  composed  in  variously  proportioned  spaces;  square, 
oblong,  circular,  elliptical,  triangular,  etc.,  as  well  as  in 
spaces  that  have  no  given  geometrical  form.  The  student 
should  make  a  number  of  arrangements  of  various  plants 
in  the  manner  described  above  and  should  be  ever  on  the 
alert  to  catch  suggestions  from,  and  see  decorative  possi¬ 
bilities  in,  every  growing  thing.  He  should  also  study 
designs  that  he  finds  about  him  and  endeavor  to  analyze  their 
principle  of  construction  and  put  himself  through  the  same 
problem  that  the  designer  before  him  did  in  exercising  them. 


CONVENTIONALIZATION 

16.  Space  Filling. — For  further  exercise,  the  student 
should  construct  symmetrical  figures  suggested  by  the  form 
of  some  simple  flower,  such  as  the  common  daisy,  the  oxeye 
daisy,  dandelion,  rose,  or  any  convenient  vegetable  form. 

In  Figs.  14  and  15  are  shown  sixteen  conventional  designs 
based  on  the  common  daisy.  Each  of  these  is  the  work 
of  a  different  student  working  on  the  same  problem. 
Symmetry  and  balance  are  evident.  The  subject  of  this 
problem  was  the  same  in  each  case,  and  the  different  forms 
herewith  shown  are  simple  examples  of  the  variety  of  solu¬ 
tions  that  can  be  arrived  at  in  a  single  problem  design  when 
worked  out  by  different  individuals.  Observe  the  variety  in 
the  treatment  of  different  parts  in  the  form  of  the  ornament 
as  a  whole.  Each  form  can  be  considered  as  a  unit  for 
repetition  in  the  complete  design,  and  these  varieties  show 
the  opportunities  for  the  almost  endless  chain  of  design 
based  on  a  single  flower  or  type.  In  considering  any  one 
of  these  balances  as  a  unit  in  the  design,  due  considera¬ 
tion  should  be  given  to  the  character  and  form  of  the  space 
that  is  to  be  occupied,  and  for  practice  work  it  is  wise  to 
make  repeated  conventionalized  forms  of  the  same  flower, 
basing  them  on  some  definite  geometrical  shape  that  the 
design  is  to  fill.  For  instance,  we  have  an  equilateral  tri¬ 
angle,  the  lozenge  shape  composed  of  two  equilateral 


28 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


5 


triangles,  the  square,  and  the  rectangle,  each  of  which  is 
frequently  used  in  designs  as  a  basis  on  which  the  repeat 
is  arranged. 

In  filling  these  spaces,  the  designer  must  possess  invent¬ 
ive  genius;  he  must  be  original,  independent,  and  daring, 
and  he  must  be  a  close  student  of  nature  in  order  to  combine 
these  traits  successfully  in  a  given  design.  A  man  that 
happens  to  be  possessed  with  instinct  of  design,  but  does 
not  possess  a  thorough  knowledge  of  nature,  can  hope  to 
produce  nothing  more  than  an  incongruous  and  irrational 
design;  on  the  other  hand,  a  man  that  is  well  acquainted  with 
the  details  of  nature,  that  has  been  a  student  of  nature  and 
is  sufficiently  daring  and  independent  to  depart  from  nature 
for  good  decorative  reasons,  is  almost  certain  to  be  suc¬ 
cessful  as  a  designer. 

17.  Portraiture  Not  Aimed  At. — Suppose  that  one 
has  a  particularly  difficult  form  to  adapt  in  order  to  fill  the 
proper  space.  It  must  be  bent  or  twisted  or  curtailed  until 
it  fits.  The  problem  here  is  to  fit  the  space.  The  weak 
designer  declines  to  bend  his  type  because  it  does  not  bend 
in  nature,  or  he  declines  to  curtail  it  because  it  is  natural 
that  it  should  be  extended,  and  the  result  is  his  decoration 
is  sacrificed  to  his  nature  knowledge  and  the  design  becomes 
weak  and  lacking  in  decorative  expression. 

This  gives  some  idea  of  the  degree  to  which  we  may 
depart  from  portraiture  of  nature  when  we  enter  into  the 
purely  conventional  treatment.  The  designer  should  make 
up  his  mind  that  so  long  as  his  designs  do  not  overstep  the 
bounds  of  good  ornament  and  enter  the  realm  of  absurd  and 
incongruous  decoration,  his  fancy  for  decorative  element 
may  be  as  extreme  as  he  chooses  to  make  it.  Therefore, 
one’s  imagination  should  be  given  free  rein,  and  he  should 
borrow  his  elements  for  their  beauty  and  distort  them,  if  neces¬ 
sary,  to  study  them  to  his  purpose,  so  long  as  he  does  not 
produce  absurdities.  The  common  swamp  flag  or  the  cattail 
grows  perpendicularly;  we  never  see  them  curved  grace¬ 
fully  in  nature  and  their  only  departure  from  the  vertical 


Fig. 14 


30 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


§5 


is  where  the  reed  or  leaf  becomes  broken.  But  if  this 
type  is  desired  as  a  decorative  element  to  fit  the  space,  we 
can  bend  the  cattail  or  curve  its  leaves  gracefully  or  arrange 
them  as  though  unrelated  to  the  ogee  curve,  so  long  as  they 
suit  the  purpose  and  space  for  which  they  are  intended.  But 
to  have  them  growing  horizontally  from  the  sides  of  the 
surface  or  diagonally  out  of  the  corners,  or  from  the  top 
downwards,  would  be  to  overstep  the  bounds  of  conven¬ 
tionalism  and  therefore  would  be  an  absurdity. 

18.  Conventional  Units. — It  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  conventional  units  that  we  have  at  our  disposal  are 
the  bilateral,  the  rosette,  and  the  scroll.  In  the  first,  the 
design  is  symmetrical  each  side  of  the  vertical  line;  in  the 
second,  it  radiates  in  all  directions  from  a  central  spot;  and 
in  the  last,  it  evolves  from  a  center.  In  the  application  of 
our  previous  suggestion,  the  cattail  could  not,  with  reason, 
be  designed  as  a  rosette,  nor  as  a  scroll;  therefore,  it  must 
be  based  on  some  bilateral  arrangement.  Therefore,  the 
designer  should  content  himself  with  these  simple  units  and 
not  endeavor  to  break  away  from  them  and  establish  new 
ones,  but  accept  the  limitations  and  make  the  most  of  the  type 
at  his  disposal.  These  forms  are  fixed,  and  variety  is  gained 
by  giving  freshness  to  the  detail  and  interest  to  the  handling. 

This  principle  of  ringing  changes  with  a  few  simple 
forms  is  not  confined  to  the  subject  of  design.  We  find 
in  the  greatest  dramas  numerous  plots  based  on  familiar 
household  tales  and  historic  facts  that  never  lack  interest 
and  originality. 

The  student  should  endeavor  to  picture  his  design  mentally 
before  any  effort  is  made  to  place  it  on  paper.  He  should 
see  the  form  as  a  whole  and  roughly  sketch  it  symmetrically 
on  both  sides  of  the  vertical  line.  With  the  main  lines  in 
place,  he  may  work  up  the  details  somewhat,  and  when 
thoroughly  satisfied  with  this  he  should  draw  the  whole  and 
structural  lines  very  carefully  in  on  the  left  side  of  the  ver¬ 
tical  line,  after  which  the  drawing  on  the  right  side  of  the 
line  may  be  erased 


Fig.  15 


32 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


§5 


A  piece  of  tracing  paper  is  then  laid  over  the  left  side 
of  the  figure,  a  vertical  line  drawn  down  the  center  and  the 
whole  carefully  traced  by  means  of  a  finely  pointed  soft- 
lead  pencil.  The  paper  should  then  be  turned  over  and 
the  lead  lines  transmitted  to  the  right  side  of  the  figure  by 
gently  rubbing  on  the  back  of  the  paper  with  the  forefinger 
nail.  The  right  side  can  then  be  penciled  in  carefully  and 
the  whole  drawing  cleaned  up  and  finished.  With  more 
skill  in  drawing  one  can  draw  both  sides,  freehand,  securing 
the  balance  by  means  of  eye  measurement  or  scaling  by  com¬ 
passes.  The  tracing  method  is  the  practical  one  because  it 
is  quicker  as  a  rule,  but  it  should  not  be  resorted  to  on  all 
occasions  as  it  is  good  practice  to  duplicate  two  sides  of  the 
drawing  entirely  freehand.  Symmetrical  figures,  the  two 
sides  of  which  are  drawn  freehand,  are  freed  from  mechan¬ 
ical  inaccuracies  and  therefore  are  somewhat  enhanced  in 
value,  and  the  best  designs  that  are  built  on  the  symmetrical 
vertical  always  show  a  slight  variation  between  the  two  sides 
indicative  of  the  fact  that  they  have  been  made  freehand. 

39.  Use  of  the  Repeating  Glass  anti  Other  Aids. 
In  studying  the  effect  of  symmetry,  a  small  strip  of  mirror 
or  looking  glass  is  useful.  When  laid  along  the  edge  of  the 
design  at  an  angle  of  90°,  it  will  enable  the  designer  to 
study  the  effect  of  two  sides  of  the  design  when  completed. 
Two  such  strips  of  glass,  whose  ends  come  together,  can  be 
laid  over  a  design,  or  the  portion  of  a  design,  and  a  con¬ 
tinuous  circular  design  repeat  obtained  so  as  to  convert  any 
article  or  series  of  articles  into  a  decorative  rosette. 

When  the  figure  is  carefully  outlined  it  should  be  washed 
in  with  color  or  distemper,  either  in  black  and  white  or  in 
some  simple  tints  of  body  color,  the  best  results  being 
obtained  by  the  beginner,  however,  by  simply  using  several 
shades  of  gray. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  certain  seasons  or  periods  lean 
particularly  to  some  historic  style.  Certain  designers  also 
show  a  decided  inclination  to  work  in  a  certain  historic  style, 
and  likewise  the  student  will  find  himself  particularly  inclined 


Fig. 16 


34 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


§5 


to  follow  out  a  certain  character  of  designing  that  either 
corresponds  to  a  historical  style  or  is  characteristic  of  himself. 
The  relation  of  this  personal  characteristic  to  a  historic  form 
may  be  entirely  arbitrary  and  it  may  be  due  to  the  fondness 
of  the  student  for  that  particular  style  of  art.  When  one  is 
working  intentionally  to  obtain  a  historic  effect,  the  spirit  of 
the  period  represented  should  ever  be  borne  in  mind,  no 
matter  what  may  be  the  type  from  which  the  design  is  con¬ 
ventionalized.  Although  the  Mohammedan  religion  forbids 
the  representation  of  any  living  form,  there  is  no  reason 
why  a  modern  Moorish  designer  should  not  draw  his  idea 
from  any  natural  form.  The  character  of  the  construction 
of  the  ornament  and  the  handling  of  the  color  will  determine 
the  Moorish  feeling,  whereas  the  originality  of  the  design 
may  depend  entirely  on  the  ingenuity  of  the  designer  to 
apply  some  modern  form  to  the  historic  Moorish  construc¬ 
tion.  In  a  similar  manner,  modern  floral  fruit  and  vege¬ 
table  forms  can  be  applied  to  any  style  of  historic  ornament, 
if  the  student  bears  in  mind  the  character  of  the  style  and 
endeavors  to  work  in  sympathy  with  it. 

In  Figs.  16  and  17  are  shown  several  examples  of  conven¬ 
tional  work  executed  by  students  of  the  Industrial  Art  School 
of  Philadelphia.  ( b )  and  ( k )  are  very  barbaric  in  style,  whereas 
( e )  and  (j)  are  strongly  Romanesque  in  character.  The  fact 
that  ( b )  and  (k)  are  barbaric  does  not  count  against  them, 
and  the  student  whose  work  might  be  so  classed  should  not 
feel  discouraged,  as  it  is  far  better  that  his  designs  be 
classed  under  the  barbaric  styles  than  to  have  them  unclassi- 
fiable  at  all.  As  long  as  he  possesses  the  fertility  of  inven¬ 
tion,  and  continues  the  practice  of  conventionalization,  he 
will  overcome  the  limitation  of  his  skill  and  be  certain  to 
show  gratifying  improvement. 

Referring  back  to  Figs.  16  and  17,  one  finds  in  (//)  and  (i) 
suggestive  motives  of  L’Art  Nouveau,  while  (a)  and  ( d )  are 
more  Gothic  in  character,  somewhat  after  the  style  of  Morris. 
Exercises  of  this  character  should  be  practiced  frequently; 
the  circle,  hexagon,  triangle,  and  the  lozenge  shape  being 
used  as  governing  forms.  The  drawings  should  be  about 


Fig.  17 


36 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


§5 


6  inches  in  diameter,  or  even  more,  and  each  should  be 
carefully  worked  out  in  this  practice  work,  as  neatness  and 
accuracy  of  execution  can  be  acquired  only  by  constantly 
practicing  it  in  daily  exercises. 

Finally,  the  student  of  plant  analysis  should  endeavor  to 
become  possessed  of  the  knowledge  of  plant  forms  and 
methods  of  growth  so  that  he  can  at  any  time  not  only  sketch 
them  from  memory,  but  accommodate  them  to  any  form  of 
surface  or  character  of  material.  In  making  plant  forms  for 
practical  design,  the  designer  must  bear  in  mind  the  material 
in  which  the  design  is  to  be  executed  and  not  design  for 
stone  carving  that  which  is  best  suited  for  relief  in  wood,  or 
design  for  carpet  that  which  can  better  be  reproduced  as 
wallpaper.  Every  material  and  every  method  of  manu¬ 
facture  has  its  limitations,  and  it  is  to  adapt  the  natural 
forms  to  the  limitations  of  these  methods  of  reproduction 
that  the  designer  must  resort  to  conventionalism. 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


CLASSES  OF  COLOR 

1.  Distinction  Between  Transparent  Water  Color 
and  Distemper  Color. — Designs  for  furniture,  interior 
decorations,  and  carpets,  or  for  wallpaper  and  other  printed 
fabrics,  are  usually  rendered  in  water  color,  but  water-color 
paints  may  be  divided  into  two  classes;  namely,  the  trans¬ 
parent  and  the  opaque.  The  transparent  water  colors  are 
supplied  in  small  cakes  or  pans,  and  simply  require  moisten¬ 
ing  to  be  made  ready  for  use.  They  may  be  regarded,  as  a 
rule,  as  simply  a  series  of  stains  that  are  spread  on  a 
surface  to  give  it  color  without  destroying  the  characteristics 
of  that  surface  in  any  way.  Opaque  water  color ,  usually 
called  tempera  or  distemper ,  consists  of  an  opaque  pigment 
that,  when  spread  over  a  surface,  destroys  all  the  character¬ 
istics,  or  markings,  and  leaves,  when  dry,  a  color  or  tone 
characteristic  of  the  paint  itself. 

Wallpaper  is  printed  in  distemper,  and  consequently  wall¬ 
paper  designs  are  executed  in  this  medium.  Oilcloth,  how¬ 
ever,  is  printed  in  oil  paint,  but  the  designs  are  usually  made 
in  distemper,  as  it  dries  quickly  and  is  easier  to  handle  than 
oil  paint.  Designs  for  textiles  and  printed  fabrics  are  made 
in  distemper  for  the  reason  that  it  is  easy  to  handle  and  at 
the  same  time,  being  opaque,  covers,  to  a  certain  extent, 
the  guide  lines  of  the  point  paper  on  which  it  is  laid  and 
leaves  the  finished  design  similar  in  appearance  to  the 
finished  fabric.  That  is  to  say,  that  in  laying  out  a  design 
for  a  carpet  one  uses  cross-section,  or  point,  paper,  and  must 
consider  each  line  of  squares  on  the  paper  as  representing  a 
line  of  warp  or  weft  in  the  finished  fabric.  By  laying  out 

For  notice  of  copyright ,  see  page  immediately  following  the  title  page. 

g6 


2 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


§6 


the  design  with  this  consideration  in  mind,  in  distemper,  the 
designer  obliterates  all  the  guide  lines  and  his  finished 
design  appears  as  the  finished  fabric. 

Designs  for  jewelry  and  enamel  work  are  occasionally 
executed  in  oil  color,  although  both  water  color  and  dis¬ 
temper  are  sometimes  used.  Designs  for  stained-glass 
windows,  china  decoration,  and  other  ceramics  are  most 
easily  rendered  in  transparent  water  color. 

2.  Medium  to  I3e  Used  in  Specific  Cases. — Every 
designer,  no  matter  what  line  of  work  he  selects,  should  be 
able  to  execute  his  designs  readily  in  the  medium  best 
suited  to  the  purpose.  To  some  purposes  distemper  lends 
itself  very  readily,  while  in  other  cases  transparent  water 
color  is  superior.  In  making  designs  for  stained-glass 
windows  and  other  ceramics,  it  is  necessary  that  the  color 
should  be  transparent,  as  the  mineral  paints  with  which  the 
final  fabric  will  be  executed  or  painted  must  be  transparent 
to  show  the  texture  of  the  material.  Designs  for  silverware 
and  certain  forms  of  jewelry  are  sometimes  executed  in 
transparent  color,  particularly  where  the  design  includes 
some  form  of  glass  or  enamel. 

When  a  designer  lays  out  a  design  for  any  given  article 
or  utensil,  he  is  at  liberty  to  use  any  medium  for  the 
purpose.  Pencil  drawings,  pen-and-ink  renderings,  water- 
color  or  monotint  washes,  distemper  or  oil,  are  at  his 
disposal,  and  there  are  no  hard  and  set  rules  that  necessitate 
his  using  any  one  of  these  mediums  at  any  time.  His 
judgment  must  be  keen,  however,  and  he  must  determine  at 
the  outset  which  medium  is  best  suited  for  the  purpose;  for, 
should  he  represent  in  monotint  that  which  could  be  better 
expressed  in  color,  or  should  he  represent  in  water  color 
something  that  could  be  more  suitably  rendered  in  distemper, 
his  design  is  likely  to  be  misjudged  and  fail  in  its  mission. 

3.  Submitted  Sketch  Should  Represent  Finished 
Object. — One  point  that  the  designer  should  thoroughly 
comprehend  is  that  in  preparing  a  design  for  a  special 
purpose,  it  very  seldom  occurs  that  the  design  submitted  to 


§6 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


3 


the  prospective  purchaser  resembles  in  any  way  the  practical 
design  or  working  drawing  that  is  given  to  the  craftsman  by 
which  he  is  to  manufacture  the  article. 

Should  a  designer  be  called  on  to  present  a  sketch  for 
a  silver  vase,  he  will  probably  find  that  the  prospective 
purchaser  expects  to  see  a  picture  of  the  vase  very  much  as 
it  will  appear  when  completed;  he  should,  therefore,  as  far 
as  possible,  make  his  sketch  a  finished  picture.  However, 
when  his  design  has  been  accepted  and  he  turns  it  over  to 
the  silversmith  to  work  into  a  reality  he  must  not  present 
to  him  a  picture,  unless  he  intends  to  leave  it  to  the  silver¬ 
smith  to  work  out  the  details.  The  working  drawings  must 
give  accurate  representations  of  the  sections  and  repousse 
work,  in  order  that  they  may  be  suitably  executed  in 
accordance  with  the  original  intentions. 

A  design  for  a  chair  or  piece  of  furniture  should  represent, 
in  form  and  texture,  the  character  of  the  finished  work  as  it 
comes  from  the  manufacturer’s  hands;  and  on  a  private 
order  the  prospective  purchaser  expects  to  be  able,  from  the 
sketch,  to  determine  the  kind  of  wood,  the  color  and  style  of 
upholstery  covering,  and  the  general  appearance  and  style 
of  the  chair.  However,  when  the  design  is  accepted,  the 
designer  makes  a  working  drawing,  which  goes  into  the 
shop,  that  shows  simply  how  the  article  shall  be  put 
together,  what  precaution  shall  be  taken  to  secure  strength, 
how  deep  the  carving  shall  be  cut,  if  there  be  such,  and  in 
what  direction  the  grain  shall  run  in  those  pieces  where 
there  may  be  some  uncertainty.  It  will  be  seen  from  this 
that  a  design  for  any  object  must  necessarily  be  made  in 
two  forms,  or  possibly  rendered  in  two  mediums. 

In  order  to  represent  all  the  conditions  of  wood  grain, 
upholstery,  etc.  in  the  chair,  one  may  use  transparent  water 
color  to  get  a  proper  effect;  whereas,  a  working  drawing  can 
be  rendered  simply  in  pencil  and  on  brown  paper,  not  only 
because  such  paper  is  much  less  expensive,  but  also  because 
it  is  much  more  durable  and  better  suited  for  shop  handling. 

The  same  fact  is  true  of  the  silver  vase,  the  original 
design  for  which  may  be  rendered  in  water  color,  distemper, 


4 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


6 


or  oil  and  submitted  on  a  fine  quality  of  drawing  paper  or 
canvas  in  order  that  it  may  make  the  best  impression  on  the 
person  that  has  ordered  it,  and  it  need  not  necessarily  be 
more  than  one-quarter  to  one-half  its  actual  size;  as  it  will 
thus  appear  in  detail  as  if  observed  in  reality  from  a  certain 
distance.  The  working  drawing  turned  over  to  the  silver¬ 
smith  need  not  present  any  of  these  artistic  details,  but  must 
be  rendered  so  as  to  give  exact  dimensions,  accurate  sections, 
and  absolute  form.  These  drawings,  like  those  for  the  chair, 
can  be  drawn  on  coarse  paper  and  in  pencil  only. 

4.  Handling  Color.— Transparent  water  color  is  very 
easily  handled  where  plain  washes  are  required,  but  one 
must  determine  at  the  outset  what  color  he  will  use,  for 
having  once  laid  a  wash  over  a  given  surface  the  power  to 
change  it  is  very  limited.  With  distemper,  however,  the  case 
is  different;  the  color  being  opaque,  can  be  changed  almost 
unlimitedly,  for  after  it  is  dry  it  can  be  scraped  off  and  another 
color  laid  in  its  place,  or  the  second  color  can  be  laid  over  the 
first  in  some  instances  without  the  slightest  difficulty. 

5.  Colors  Most  Needed. — A  convenient  lot  of  colors 
to  use  are  the  following:  Turkey  red,  chrome  yellow,  ultra- 
marine  blue,  chrome  green,  burnt  sienna,  raw  umber,  burnt 
umber,  cremnitz  white,  and  yellow  ocher.  It  is  wise  to  have, 
in  addition  to  this  combination  of  colors,  a  quantity  of 
Antwerp  blue  and  carmine  in  powder  form,  so  as  to  vary 
the  hue  of  the  foregoing  colors  by  admixture.  Most  of  the 
distemper  colors  used  by  designers  are  put  up  in  small 
glass  jars. 

6.  Grinding  Colors. — In  their  raw  state  these  colors 
are  usually  insufficiently  ground,  and  having  no  size  mixed 
with  them  possess  no  adhesive  quality.  Therefore,  if  applied 
in  design  they  will,  when  dry,  brush  off  like  so  much  powdered 
chalk.  It  is  therefore  necessary  that  they  be  reground, 
when  needed,  by  means  of  a  muller  and  a  ground-glass  slab. 
During  the  grinding  process  a  little  gum  arabic  is  added  to  the 
paint  and  thoroughly  ground  up  with  it  in  order  to  give  it  the 
necessary  sizing  and  adhesive  quality.  During  the  operation, 


6 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


5 


it  is  convenient  to  have  a  small  sponge  and  a  palette  knife, 
so  that  the  ground  color  may  be  scraped  up  with  the  latter 
and  deposited  in  the  ointment  pots  or  small  dishes  that  are 
used  to  hold  the  finished  color,  while  the  former  may  be  used 
to  squeeze  a  few  drops  of  water  occasionally  as  more  paste 
or  powder  is  added  to  be  ground. 

Note. — The  colors  furnished  with  the  I.  C.  S.  outfits  are  ground 
ready  for  use. 

In  grinding  the  color,  it  is  quite  important  to  get  a  suffi¬ 
cient  amount  of  size  mixed  with  it  to  make  it  adhere 
properly  to  the  surface  to  which  it  is  applied,  and  to  get  no 
more  than  is  sufficient.  Too  little  will  cause  the  color  to 
blur  and  brush  off,  and  too  much  will  make  it  sticky  and 
very  difficult  to  manipulate. 

One  way  to  determine  this  is  by  testing.  A  certain 
quantity  of  color  may  be  mixed  under  the  muller  and  ground 
with  gum  arabic.  Experiments  should  then  be  tried  with  it 
to  see  whether  it  flows  properly  and  adheres  satisfactorily. 
A  small  space  may  be  painted  on  a  small  piece  of  paper 
and  permitted  to  dry  while  the  grinding  proceeds,  or  if  the 
paint  is  sufficiently  ground  it  may  be  quickly  dried  by  heat. 
When  thoroughly  dry  it  should  remain  fixed,  even  when 
rubbed  briskly  with  the  dry  finger  or  a  soft  eraser;  but  if  it 
appears  shiny  when  dry,  too  much  gum  arabic  has  been 
mixed  with  it,  and  more  color  should  be  ground  in,  in  order 
to  reduce  the  proportionate  amount  of  size. 

Colors  ground  with  an  insufficient  quantity  of  gum  dry 
absolutely  flat  and  without  streaks,  and  beginners  are  likely 
to  be  misled  with  the  pleasing  appearance  presented  under 
these  conditions;  while  too  much  gum  causes  the  color  to 
dry  in  streaks  and  to  scale  off  and  crack.  Therefore,  fre¬ 
quent  experiments  in  artificial  drying  should  be  tried,  in 
order  to  get  satisfactory  results. 

Different  colors  require  different  amounts  of  size.  Dark 
colors,  such  as  ultramarine  blue,  require  more  size  than  the 
lighter  colors,  such  as  chrome  yellow  and  white;  therefore, 
no  rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to  the  exact  amount  of  size 
that  is  necessary. 


6 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


6 


The  grinding  should  be  accomplished  by  a  slow,  rotary 
motion  of  the  muller,  grasping  it  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  1. 
The  more  carefully  the  color  is  ground,  the  more  easily  can 
it  be  manipulated  with  the  brush.  It  must  be  perfectly 


Pig.  1 


smooth  and  free  from  lumps  or  grit,  and  with  a  little  experi¬ 
ence  one  can  learn  to  judge  of  its  condition  by  the  way  it 
feels  under  the  muller  or  in  the  brush  when  applied,  although 
at  first  the  designer  should  always  test  it  and  permit  it 
to  dry.  Powdered  colors  require  moistening  before  they 
are  ground. 

7.  Preserving  the  Ground  Colors. — After  the  color 
is  ground  it  should  be  put  away  in  jars  with  screws  caps, 
and  if  too  thin  for  use  the  jars  may  be  left  open  until  the 
moisture  has  evaporated  and  the  color  is  of  the  consistency 
of  a  thick  paste.  If  the  colors  become  entirely  dry,  how¬ 
ever,  they  must  be  removed  from  the  jars  and  reground  with 
water.  This  can  be  done  immediately  before  using,  as  after 
they  have  been  once  ground  the  second  grinding  will  be  a 
very  short  operation. 


§6 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


7 


The  greatest  care  should  always  be  exercised  to  keep  the 
colors  clean,  and  where  a  mixture  of  two  or  more  colors  is 
required  the  brush  should  not  be  dipped  into  the  jar.  A 
certain  amount  of  color  should  be  removed  from  the  jar  to 
the  ground-glass  slab  and  mixed  with  whatever  other  color 
is  desired,  stirring  with  the  palette  knife  until  they  are 
thoroughly  united. 

In  removing  the  colors  from  the  jars,  either  for  direct 
application  to  a  design  or  for  mixing  with  other  colors,  it  is 
always  well  to  stir  them  thoroughly,  as  the  size  is  likely  to 
settle  at  the  bottom. 

8.  Making  a  Color  Cliart. — The  student,  after  redu¬ 
cing  his  colors  to  the  proper  consistency,  should  lay  out 
Color  Chart  A,  similar  to  Fig.  2.  First,  the  six  colors  should 
be  spread  on  six  squares  measuring  1  inch  each,  as  shown 
on  the  left  side  of  the  diagram  at  (a)  in  the  order  indicated; 
namely,  commencing  at  the  top  with  turkey  red,  then  chrome 
yellow,  ultramarine  blue,  raw  sienna,  burnt  sienna,  and 
burnt  umber.  In  column  (£),  a  series  of  five  squares  should 
each  be  covered  with  a  mixture  of  turkey  red  with  each 
of  the  other  five  colors,  commencing  with  yellow.  In 
column  (c) ,  four  squares  should  be  drawn  showing  mix¬ 
tures  of  yellow  with  each  of  the  four  colors  beneath  it;  and 
in  column  ( d ),  three  squares  showing  a  mixture  of  blue  with 
each  of  the  three  colors  beneath  it.  In  column  (e),  each  of 
the  colors  in  column  (a)  is  mixed  with  a  quantity  of  black, 
which  dulls  the  tone;  while  in  column  (/),  each  of  the  colors 
in  column  (a)  is  mixed  with  white,  which  lightens  the  tone 
and  converts  the  colors  into  mere  tints.  This  chart  should 
be  drawn  on  a  good  quality  of  Whatman’s  paper  or  card¬ 
board,  7i  inches  by  10  inches.  The  squares  are  i  inch  apart 
horizontally,  f  inch  apart  vertically.  When  finished,  this 
chart  should  be  preserved  and  sent  in  to  the  Schools  for 
criticism  and  suggestion,  as  directed  hereafter. 

In  using  the  mixed  distemper  color  for  a  design,  a  suffi¬ 
cient  quantity  should  be  taken  with  the  palette  knife  to  about 
half  fill  an  ointment  pot;  this  should  be  placed  in  the  center 


8 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


§6 


of  the  ground-glass  slab,  with  a  small  quantity  of  gum  arabic 
in  solution.  The  gum-arabic  solution  should  be  as  thick  as 
it  can  possibly  be  made,  for  if  it  is  too  watery  the  paint  will 
spread  out  on  the  slab  while  grinding  and  require  constant 
attention  to  keep  it  under  the  muller.  Certain  colors  are 
more  troublesome  in  this  respect  than  others,  particularly 
white,  chrome  yellow,  black,  and  raw  sienna;  but  if  the  jars 
containing  these  colors  are  allowed  to  stand  open  for  a  time 
the  pigment  will  thicken,  and  this  difficulty  can  be  obviated 
to  a  certain  extent.  In  opening  a  jar  of  color,  any  free 
water  that  is  found  on  the  surface  should  be  poured  off 
before  taking  out  the  paint  to  grind. 

9.  Applying  Distemper  Colors. — Distemper  colors 
are  all  opaque  and  have  considerable  body;  therefore,  they 
cannot  be  washed  over  a  square  in  the  same  manner  that 
transparent  water  color  can,  but  are  laid  like  oil  paint.  When 
dry,  it  is  highly  desirable  that  they  present  a  perfectly  smooth, 
dull  surface,  without  indications  of  brush  marks. 

1  he  prepared  color  should  be  applied  with  ordinary  water- 
color  brushes,  preferably  sable  brushes,  as  they  are  exceed¬ 
ingly  elastic  and  come  readily  to  a  point.  Red  sable  brushes, 
Nos.  6  and  7,  are  a  necessity  for  wallpaper  and  carpet 
designing,  but  for  the  latter  purpose  the  sharp  points  should 
be  burned  off  by  touching  them  to  a  hot  iron.  Care  should  be 
taken  that  the  end  be  burned  perfectly  square  and  of  the 
proper  width  or  bluntness  to  fit  the  checks  in  the  design 
paper.  For  very  large  surfaces,  such  as  background  tints 
in  wallpaper  designing,  the  sponge  may  be  used,  or  a  large 
camel’s-hair  brush.  In  fact,  the  designer  should  learn 
early  in  his  efforts  to  exercise  his  ingenuity  and  take  advan¬ 
tage  of  every  medium  he  possibly  can  to  secure  the  desired 
effects,  or  to  save  time  in  laying  in  his  work. 

When  the  color  is  mixed  to  about  the  consistency  of  cream 
and  painted  over  a  surface  with  reasonable  rapidity,  it  will 
usually  dry  perfectly  flat  without  indications  as  to  what 
direction  the  strokes  of  the  brush  were  used  to  make  it. 
It  occasionally  appears  somewhat  streaked  in  drying,  but  it 


14596 


6 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


9 


will  dry  out  very  satisfactorily  if  it  has  been  mixed  to  the 
proper  consistency. 

In  case  of  error,  the  color  can  usually  be  washed  or  scraped 
off,  the  former  method  being-  advisable  where  there  is  any 
considerable  quantity.  To  wash  it  off,  a  small  sponge  should 
be  wetted  with  clean  water  and  the  whole  surface  of  the 
paint  moistened;  then,  by  rubbing  from  the  edge  of  the  paint 
toward  the  middle,  on  all  sides,  the  color  can  be  washed  up 
into  a  central  puddle,  taken  up  with  a  palette  knife,  and  at 
last  taken  out  entirely.  In  doing  this,  rinse  the  sponge  fre¬ 
quently,  so  that  it  will  not  soil  the  paper  as  it  passes  over  it. 

Care  should  be  taken  in  handling  distemper,  to  see  that  it 
is  evenly  worked  up  to  the  edges  of  the  surface  it  is  to 
cover,  and  frequent  practice  on  smaller  squares  than  these  is 
desirable,  as  in  designing  for  textile  fabrics  the  squares  on 
the  design  paper  are  sometimes  as  small  as  tV  inch.  To 
evenly  work  up  the  edge  of  small  squares,  it  is  sometimes 
desirable  that  a  small  but  firm,  broad  stroke  be  passed  around 
the  sides  of  the  square  to  define  the  edges,  and  that  the  cen¬ 
ter  be  then  washed  over  and  filled  in.  Where  the  space  is 
large  or  complicated,  it  is  better  that  the  color  should  be 
carried  along  the  edges  and  over  the  surface  at  one  time  in 
precisely  the  same  way  that  a  wash  would  be  applied. 


COLOR  MATCHING 

10.  Good  Color  Sense  a  Necessity. — The  designer 
should  always  be  able  to  match  color  accurately,  for  he  is 
frequently  called  on  to  execute  designs  that  call  for  the 
use  of  materials  or  fabrics  having  certain  colors.  Many 
persons  have  color  perception  developed  to  a  greater  degree 
than  others,  while  a  few  persons  possess  no  color  perception 
whatever,  and  are  said  to  be  color  blind.  Color  blindness  is 
a  very  serious  drawback  to  a  designer  and  prevents  his  work¬ 
ing,  except  in  a  very  limited  field.  However,  considerable 
practice  is  required  to  train  the  perceptive  faculties  of  a  per¬ 
son  with  normal  eyesight  so  that  he  can  readily  detect  what 
colors  or  shades  or  tones  exist  in  a  certain  fabric  before  him. 


10 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


§6 


In  Fig.  3,  Color  Chart  B,  is  shown  a  chart  of  color  matching; 
its  dimensions  are  the  same  as  the  other  chart — inches  by 
10  inches.  The  exercise  consists  in  matching  the  color  of 
five  pieces  of  material  of  varying  hues  and  textures. 

The  student  should  obtain  some  colored  goods,  such  as 
woolens,  cottons,  silks,  velvets,  etc.,  and  endeavor  to  mix 
colors  to  match  them  exactly,  making  selections  of  at  least 
five  different  colors  and  pinning  them  to  a  paper,  as  shown 
in  Color  Chart  B;  then  draw  beside  them  a  square  repre¬ 
senting  the  color.  This  will  necessitate  frequent  testing  of 
the  color  on  a  separate  piece  of  paper,  and  the  addition 
thereto  of  other  color  until  the  required  shade  is  attained. 
One  must  learn  to  see  whether  the  color  applied  to  these 
individual  squares  requires  more  blue,  more  yellow,  or  more 
red.  In  selecting  the  colored  goods  to  match  in  this  exer¬ 
cise,  it  is  best  to  select  such  as  possess  colors  that  combine 
agreeably  and  at  the  same  time  make  as  great  a  variety 
of  color  as  possible. 

The  desired  mixture  should  be  made  with  as  few  colors  as 
possible,  and  when  the  proper  tint  is  painted  on  a  separate 
piece  of  paper  and  allowed  to  dry  one  can  readily  judge 
whether  it  is  too  light  or  too  dark,  too  intense  or  too 
neutral,  or  whether  it  leans  too  much  or  too  little  to  some 
decided  color.  As  it  is  very  much  easier  to  lighten  a  tone 
than  to  make  it  darker,  it  is  always  best  to  err  on  the  safe 
side  and  start  in  with  a  color  that  is  somewhat  darker  than 
the  one  to  be  matched,  and  to  gradually  lighten  and  decrease 
its  intensity  by  adding  some  of  the  lighter  colors  with  which  it 
is  to  be  mixed,  or  by  adding  white,  as  the  case  may  require. 

For  instance,  if  the  color  to  be  matched  is  a  blue-violet, 
start  with  ultramarine  blue  and  a  little  carmine  until  the 
required  color  is  obtained,  and  add  to  this  a  sufficient  quan¬ 
tity  of  white  until  the  proper  tint  is  reached.  If  only  a  small 
amount  is  needed,  the  white  may  be  added  to  the  pure  color 
before  it  is  mixed. 

1].  Ways  of  Changing  the  Hue  or  Tone. — The 
addition  of  white  to  any  color  not  only  lightens  it  but 


COLOR  MATCHING 


Fig.  3.  Color  Chart  B 


14596 


§6 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


11 


changes  its  hue  somewhat,  making  it  colder  or  bluish;  this 
can  be  counteracted  by  the  addition  of  a  little  yellow  or 
other  warm  color.  It  will  also  be  noticed  that  the  addition 
of  white  or  black  diminishes  the  intensity  of  a  color.  This 
is  occasionally  annoying  when  one  needs  a  very  light  or 
dark,  but  still  very  intense  color  to  match,  and  the  combina¬ 
tion  of  colors  will  not  produce  it  with  the  addition  of  the 
black  or  white  pigment.  When  the  nature  of  the  color  to  be 
matched  permits  it,  a  dark  color  can  be  heightened  by  the 
addition  of  some  lighter  color  instead  of  white;  and  a  light 
color  may  be  modified  by  a  darker  one,  where  not  far 
removed  from  itself  in  point  of  hue,  instead  of  mixing  it 
with  black. 

Thus,  burnt  umber  may  be  heightened  by  the  addition  of 
chrome  yellow,  and  burnt  sienna  with  chrome  yellow  and 
turkey  red,  without  losing  any  of  their  intensity.  Chrome 
yellow  may  be  reduced  with  brown  or  burnt  sienna,  or  by  the 
addition  of  both  red  and  blue,  instead  of  mixing  it  with  black. 

Where  it  is  desired  to  mix  a  bright  green  with  either 
yellow  or  blue  in  order  to  change  its  hue,  it  is  best  to  use 
Antwerp  blue,  as  this  has  a  tendency  toward  green,  and  not 
to  use  the  ultramarine,  which  has  a  tendency  toward  purple. 
Ultramarine  blue,  however,  is  the  best  to  use  for  violet,  and 
when  mixed  with  turkey  red  or  carmine  makes  a  rich  color. 
Turkey  red  mixed  with  yellow  makes  a  better  orange  than 
carmine  and  yellow;  and  so,  the  designer  will  learn  from 
time  to  time  that  certain  combinations  of  similar  colors  pro¬ 
duce  entirely  different  results. 

12.  Considerable  practical  experience  is  necessary  to 
enable  the  designer  to  judge  the  amount  of  color  necessary 
to  prepare  in  any  case,  and  the  beginner  usually  wastes 
much  material  in  this  way,  until  his  judgment  is  well 
trained.  In  mixing  color  to  go  over  a  certain  space,  it  is 
always  better  to  have  too  much  than  too  little,  as  it  is  a 
tiresome  and  tedious  job  to  have  to  match  color,  as  is  the 
case  where  one  stops  to  mix  more  color  because  the  supply 
has  become  exhausted. 


12 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


§6 


Shiny  stuffs,  such  as  satins  and  silks,  that  show  light  and 
shade  are  more  difficult  to  match  than  dull  goods.  In 
matching  colors  in  such  goods,  they  should  be  held  in  a 
very  strong  light  and  the  general  color  effect  studied  with 
the  eyes  partly  closed. 

13.  Effects  of  Artificial  Eight  on  Colors. — Colors 
can  never  be  matched  satisfactorily  by  artificial  light,  and  it 
should  be  taken  into  consideration  at  all  times  in  preparing 
a  design  that  although  it  may  be  designed  and  manufactured 
by  daylight  it  is  likely  to  be  seen  in  the  finished  fabric  by 
gaslight  or  lamplight,  under  which  circumstances  its  color 
values  might  be  materially  changed.  Lamplight  or  gas¬ 
light  varies  from  yellow  to  orange-yellow,  and  viewed 
under  these  conditions,  colored  designs  will  present  exactly 
the  same  appearance  as  though  their  colors  had  been  mixed 
with  yellow-orange  before  they  were  applied  to  the  paper. 
The  yellows  in  the  design  become  scarcely  visible,  and  red 
and  orange  become  materially  heightened  under  the  influ¬ 
ence  of  the  yellow  light.  The  cold  reds  tending  to  purple 
lose  their  purplish  hues,  and  the  pure  blues  and  those  tend¬ 
ing  to  violet  become  much  more  violet.  The  greenish 
blues,  such  as  Antwerp  blue,  become  still  greener  and  blue 
violet  is  very  much  dulled  in  hue,  while  red  violet  becomes 
slightly  redder. 

The  yellows  and  blues  seem  to  suffer  most  under  yellow 
artificial  light,  as  the  yellow  becomes  entirely  canceled  or 
absorbed  by  a  light  of  its  own  color,  and  the  blue  is  largely 
neutralized  by  a  light  that  is  complementary  to  its  hue. 
Therefore,  one  can  see  that  it  is  practically  impossible  to 
match  colors  by  artificial  light. 


6 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


13 


COLOR  HARMONY 

14.  Advantage  of  a  Good  Color  Scheme. — It  is  of 
vast  importance  that  the  designer  be  able  to  work  out  a 
satisfactory  color  scheme  in  any  of  his  designs,  even  though 
the  manufacturer  reserves  the  privilege  of  changing  this 
color  scheme  to  suit  his  own  requirements.  A  good  color 
scheme  gives  much  personal  satisfaction  to  the  designer. 
It  makes  a  good  impression  on  the  manufacturer  to  whom 
the  design  is  submitted,  and,  consequently,  may  assist  in  its 
sale.  No  matter  how  satisfactory  the  original  color  scheme 
may  be,  the  product  will  usually  be  reproduced  with  a  num¬ 
ber  of  color  arrangements  that  are  dictated  by  the  experience 
of  the  color  man  in  the  factory. 

The  manufacturer’s  facilities  for  obtaining  a  variety  of 
color  schemes  quickly  are  much  greater  than  those  of  the 
designer.  The  wallpaper  manufacturer  can  order  his  opera¬ 
tor  to  touch  his  printing  block  to  any  particular  slab  of 
color,  or  to  vary  the  color  on  that  slab  or  in  the  troughs  of 
his  printing  machine.  Or,  the  textile  manufacturer  can  load 
his  frames  or  his  shuttles  with  different  colors  of  yarn  and 
try  the  effect  of  a  pattern  under  different  conditions,  whereas 
the  designer  must  work  out  his  color  scheme  mentally  and 
laboriously  paint  it  on  his  pattern.  Therefore,  it  behooves 
the  designer  to  select  for  his  pattern  such  a  color  scheme  as 
will  show  his  design  to  the  best  advantage,  as  it  is  difficult 
for  him  to  work  out  more  than  one. 

The  method  of  the  manufacturer  of  trying  different  color 
schemes  involves  an  element  of  chance  that  makes  it  very 
fascinating.  It  is  not  unlike  looking  into  a  kaleidoscope 
wherein  we  see  an  endless  variety  of  geometrical  effects,  but 
occasionally  strike  a  combination  that  is  much  more  interest¬ 
ing  in  form  and  color  than  the  others.  Thus  the  manufac¬ 
turer  experiments  until  he  finds  the  combination  that  suits 
him  best. 


14 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


§6 


CLASSIFICATION 

15.  All  schemes  of  color  can  be  divided  into  five  general 
classes;  namely,  bad,  inoffensive,  satisfactory,  attractive, 
and  commanding.  A  practical  working  system  of  color 
harmony — one  that  can  be  calculated  mathematically  to  give 
the  proper  hues,  tones,  and  quantities  of  various  colors — has 
never  been  invented.  Each  designer  is  dependent  on  his 
own  color  perception  to  secure  his  harmonies. 

16.  Sources  of  Color  Inspiration. — We  have  but 
three  sources  from  which  to  draw  all  color  inspiration.  First, 
the  scientific  analysis  of  light,  which  is  the  source  of  all  color, 
from  which  we  get  the  spectrum;  second,  various  combina¬ 
tions  of  color  seen  in  nature;  and  third,  the  combinations  of 
color  that  have  been  used  throughout  all  ages  in  the  best 
periods  of  decorative  art  and  architecture.  From  these 
sources  various  rules  have  been  deduced  that  give  valuable 
aid  in  practical  work.  These  rules  not  only  help  one  to 
form  intelligently  and  to  judge  his  own  color  scheme,  but 
they  also  give  him  the  key  to  the  solution  of  numerous 
different  color  schemes  for  the  same  subject  and  assist  him 
to  judge  which  one  to  select. 


SPECTRUM  SCALES 

17.  Preparing:  the  Color  Chart  C,  Spectrum  Scales. 
With  this  Section  the  student  is  furnished  with  a  book  of  col¬ 
ored  papers  representing  the  eighteen  colors  in  the  spectrum 
scale  with  two  tints  and  two  shades  of  each  color.  These 
papers  are  to  be  used  as  hereinafter  directed  to  prepare 
charts  which  will  serve  him  in  solving  problems  in  Color 
Harmony ,  which  charts  he  is  to  preserve  for  use  throughout 
the  study  of  this  Section,  and  then  send  in  for  correction  and 
criticism  with  his  answers  to  the  Examination  Questions. 

Designers  deal  almost  exclusively  with  positive  color,  and 
for  that  reason  a  thorough,  practical  working  knowledge  of 
the  spectrum  scale  is  indispensable.  The  analysis  of 


§6 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


15 


white  light  gives  us  the  purest  scale  of  colors  that  can  be 
studied,  and  the  best  way  to  study  them  is  to  make  charts 
for  one’s  personal  use. 

Color  Chart  C  should  consist  of  six  spectrum  hues  with 
twelve  intermediate  hues,  making  eighteen  hues.  To  pre¬ 
pare  such  a  chart,  take  a  piece  of  bristol  board  about 


7i  inches  by  10  inches  and  inscribe  thereon  a  circle  with  a 
radius  of  3f  inches.  Divide  this  circle  into  eighteen  equal 
parts,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4,  and  draw  lines  from  the  points  of 
subdivision  toward  the  center  until  they  intersect  with  the 
circumference  of  a  second  circle  whose  radius  is  if  inches. 
Number  these  sections  from  1  to  18,  commencing  with  the 
one  at  the  top,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  From  a  piece  of  paper 


16 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


§6 


cut  a  pattern  representing  one  of  the  eighteen  sections 
laid  out  on  the  cardboard.  Now,  from  the  book  of  colored 
papers,  pieces  should  be  cut  to  mount  on  the  diagram  so  as 
to  form  a  scale  of  spectrum  colors  in  the  order  that  they  are 
used  in  the  book,  commencing  with  violet-red,  which  is 
pasted  on  section  18  and  proceeding  to  the  right  to  red  on  1, 
orange-red  on  2,  red-orange  on  3,  orange,  etc.  throughout 
the  scale,  omitting  the  tints  and  shades.  A  black  circle 
around  the  outside,  {  inch  wide,  and  a  small  black  circle  in 
the  center,  1  inch  in  diameter,  will  complete  jthe  diagram 
and  render  it  suitable  for  use.  Next,  mark  on  the  diagram 
the  colors  orange-red,  blue,  and  yellow-green,  a,  b,  and  c, 
and  their  complementary  colors,  blue-green,  yellow,  and 
violet,  a',  b',  and  c' .  Orange  and  green  should  now  be 
marked  d  and  e ,  and  their  complementary  colors,  green-blue 
and  violet-red,  respectively,  d'  and  e' . 

It  will  be  noted  that  there  is  an  insufficient  number  of 
gradations  between  the  blue  and  green  to  furnish  complemen¬ 
tary  colors  for  all  the  primary  shades  between  the  red  and 
yellow,  and  that  there  are  not  enough  shades  between  green 
and  yellow  to  act  as  complements  to  those  lying  between 
blue  and  red;  but  the  correct  position  of  the  six  missing 
colors  can  be  easily  determined  by  looking  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  chart  in  the  proper  position.  For  instance,  the 
complementary  of  1,  which  lies  between  e'  and  a  at  the 
top,  must  be  some  color  between  e  and  a'  at  the  bottom 
of  the  chart;  also,  the  complementary  of  3,  which  lies 
between  a  and  d,  must  be  found  between  a '  and  d' .  In 
making  use  of  the  chart  in  this  way  the  student  at  once 
becomes  conscious  of  what  is  known  as  simultaneous  contrast. 

18.  Simultaneous  contrast  is  that  peculiar  power  of 
one  color  to  affect  its  adjacent  colors  with  a  complementary 
hue.  First,  each  section  of  colors  appears  to  be  more  or  less 
graded  in  tone,  being  apparently  darker  toward  the  edge  that 
approaches  a  lighter  color.  Second,  there  is  considerable 
gradation  of  hue  between  the  two  edges  of  each  section;  this 
phenomenon  becomes  more  apparent  the  longer  the  chart  is 


6 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


17 


TABLE  I 

CONTRASTS  OF  COLORS 


Color 

Tinged  With  Complement  of 

Appearance 

Color 

Composition  of 
Color 

Red 

Orange 

Green-blue 

Purplish 

Orange 

Red 

Blue-green 

Yellowish 

Red 

Yellow 

Blue 

Darker  and  purplish 

Yellow 

Red 

Blue-green 

Brighter,  slightly  greenish 

Red 

Blue 

Yellow 

Brighter  and  more  orange 

Blue 

Red 

Blue-green 

Brighter  and  slightly  greenish 

Red 

Blue 

Green-red 

More  intense 

Blue-green 

Red 

Blue-green 

More  intense 

Red 

Violet 

Yellow-green 

Brighter  and  more  orange 

Violet 

Red 

Blue-green 

Bluish 

Orange 

Yellow 

Blue 

Duller  and  redder 

Yellow 

Orange 

Green-blue 

Lighter  greenish 

Orange 

Green 

Violet-red 

Deeper  orange 

Green 

Orange 

Green-blue 

Slightly  bluish 

Orange 

Green 

Blue-orange 

More  intense 

Green-blue 

Orange 

Green-blue 

More  intense 

Orange 

Violet 

Yellow-green 

Lighter  and  yellowish 

Violet 

Orange 

Green-blue 

More  bluish 

Yellow 

Green 

Violet-red 

Duller  and  more  orange 

Green 

Yellow 

Blue 

More  bluish 

Yellow 

Green 

Blue-orange 

Brighter  and  more  orange 

Green-blue 

Yellow 

Blue 

Brighter  and  more  blue 

Yellow 

Blue 

Yellow 

More  brilliant 

Blue 

Yellow 

Blue 

More  brilliant 

Green 

Blue 

Yellow 

Yellowish  green 

Blue 

Green 

Violet-red 

More  violet 

Green 

Violet 

Yellow -green 

More  yellow 

Violet 

Green 

Violet-red 

Redder  violet 

Yellow-green 

Violet 

Yellow-green 

More  brilliant 

Violet 

Yellow 

Green-violet 

More  brilliant 

Blue 

Violet 

Yellow-green 

Lighter,  slightly  greenish 

Violet 

Blue 

Yellow 

Red  violet 

Violet 

Violet 

Red-green 

Duller  and  more  blue 

Violet-red 

Violet 

Yellow-green 

Duller  and  more  red 

18 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


§6 


studied,  and  is  particularly  apparent  in  hues  12  and  13,  which 
appear  decidedly  bluer  on  the  lower  side  than  on  the  upper, 
where  they  seem  to  approach  a  greenish  hue. 

From  this  law  of  simultaneous  contrast  we  know  that  each 
color  possesses  the  power  of  affecting  its  immediate  sur¬ 
roundings  with  a  slight  touch  of  its  complementary  hue, 
which  is  lighter  and  much  more  intense  than  the  pigments 
used  to  represent  this  complementary  color.  Thus,  when 
blue  and  yellow  are  placed  next  to  each  other,  the  blue 
affects  the  yellow  with  a  yellowish  tinge  that  is  much 
brighter  and  more  intense  than  the  yellow  itself;  and  we 
have,  in  consequence,  an  increase  both  in  light  and  satura¬ 
tion.  The  yellow,  on  the  other  hand,  tinges  the  blue  with  a 
more  intense  blue,  and  a  mutual  increase  in  brilliancy  is  the 
result.  When  two  colors  close  together  in  the  scale,  such  as 
orange  and  yellow,  are  placed  next  to  each  other  they  tend 
to  impoverish  or  reduce  the  intensity  of  each  other.  The 
reason  for  this  is  that  the  orange  sends  over  to  the  yellow  a 
tinge  of  greenish  blue,  which  being  nearly  complementary  to 
the  yellow  and  acting  in  the  manner  of  mixing  the  colored 
lights,  tends  to  make  the  yellow  paler  and  slightly  greener, 
while  the  yellow  sends  over  to  the  orange  a  tinge  of  blue 
that  neutralizes  the  yellow  in  the  orange  and  makes  it 
appear  duller  and  redder.  These  two  examples  give,  per¬ 
haps,  the  extremes  of  good  and  bad  effect,  but  Table  I 
gives  the  changes  due  to  simultaneous  contrast  when  two 
colors  are  placed  next  to  each  other. 


DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  MIXING  COLORED  LIGHTS 
AND  COLORED  PIGMENTS 

19.  Applications  to  Various  Lines  of  Work.— While 
mixtures  of  colored  lights  produce  the  same  effect,  to  a 
certain  degree,  as  the  mixture  of  colored  pigments,  certain 
combinations  are  so  much  different  in  degree  that  the  effect 
appears  entirely  different.  Complementary  pairs  of  colored 
lights,  when  combined,  produce  white,  while  complementary 
pairs  of  colored  pigments  produce  a  neutral  gray,  but  neutral 


§6 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


19 


gray  can  be  considered  the  same  as  white  under  a  low  degree 
of  illumination.  There  are  exceptions  to  these  conditions, 
however.  In  pigments,  a  mixture  of  blue  and  yellow  produces 
green  instead  of  gray,  while  in  colored  lights  taken  from 
the  spectrum,  a  combination  of  blue  and  yellow  produces 
white;  a  mixture  of  red  and  green  pigment  produces  gray, 
but  a  combination  of  red  and  green  light  produces  yellow. 

These  points  are  of  special  importance  to  the  designer  in 
all  lines  of  work,  but  especially  to  the  textile  designer  whose 
pattern  is  built  up  of  various  colored  threads,  or  yarns,  that 
are  brought  to  the  surface  of  his  fabric  in  small  dots  or  fine 
lines  of  color.  These  colors  lying  adjacent  to  one  another 
obey  the  same  laws  of  combination  as  do  mixtures  of 
colored  lights  but  do  not  reach  the  same  degree  of  brilliancy. 
Thus,  a  surface  covered  with  alternate  blue  and  yellow  dots, 
where  these  colored  threads  come  to  the  surface,  would  not 
appear  green,  as  one  might  suppose,  but  a  very  light  gray. 
It  will  therefore  be  well  to  bear  in  mind  what  these  com¬ 
binations  present.  Assuming  that  the  ends  are  viewed  in 
an  average  light,  we  find  that  alternate  threads  of  red  and 
yellow-green  appear  dull  yellow;  alternate  threads  of  violet 
and  yellow-green  appear  blue-gray;  alternate  threads  of 
violet  and  yellow  appear  light  red-violet,  and  alternate 
threads  of  red  and  blue  appear  light  violet-red.  In  every 
case  where  the  colors  used  for  such  a  combination  are  com- 
plementaries  of  each  other,  or  where  they  approach  the 
complementary  colors,  the  combination  produces  a  gray 
varying  with  the  tints  of  the  complementaries  combined. 
Thus,  alternate  threads  of  red  and  blue-green,  of  yellow- 
green  and  violet,  and  of  yellow  and  blue  appear  neutral 
gray;  as  will  also  one  thread  of  orange  to  three  of  green- 
blue,  or  one  thread  of  green  to  two  of  violet-red. 

20.  A  Working  Scale  of  Pure  Spectrum  Colors. 
In  Fig.  5  is  shown  a  chart  of  spectrum  scales  presenting 
two  tints  and  two  shades  of  each  of  the  eighteen  hues.  In 
Fig.  5  the  positions  for  the  tints  are  shown  at  7j  and  T2,  while 
the  shade  rows  are  indicated  at  A,  and  S3,  with  the  pure 


RO 


t-  h  Z  <j)  u) 


Fig.  6.  Color  Chart  E 


§6 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


21 


spectral  colors  at  N,  which  stands  for  Normal.  The  tints  are 
formed  by  the  addition  of  white  to  the  color,  while  the 
shades  are  formed  by  the  addition  of  black.  Such  a  chart  as 
this  should  be  possessed  by  each  student  in  order  that  he 
may  familiarize  himself  with  the  peculiarities  of  these  color 
harmonies  and  color  contrasts.  In  the  center  of  a  sheet 
of  cardboard  7i  inches  wide  and  26  inches  long,  a  space 
6i  inches  by  22f  inches  should  be  marked  off.  The  squares 
containing  the  colors  are  li  inches  on  the  side  and  spaced 
i  inch  apart;  they  should  be  drawn  in  pencil.  Here  we  have 
the  eighteen  scales  of  the  spectrum,  from  violet-red  at  one 
end  to  red-violet  at  the  other,  and  five  tones  in  each  scale, 
arranged  vertically,  the  pure  color  occupying  the  center  of 
each  column  with  the  two  tints  above  and  the  two  shades 
below.  The  colors  are  cut  from  the  sheets  of  paper  in  the 
same  order  as  they  come  in  the  color  book,  and  after  the 
squares  are  cut  and  mounted  on  the  card  they  should  be  left 
under  a  weight  until  thoroughly  dry.  When  thoroughly  dry, 
cut  the  scale  in  three  sections  between  orange  and  yellow- 
orange,  and  between  green-blue  and  blue.  After  cutting,  the 
pieces  should  be  replaced  and  secured  by  means  of  a  piece 
of  tape  as  a  hinge,  so  that  the  chart  can  be  folded  down  to 
the  standard  size. 

Such  a  scale  as  this  makes  an  excellent  working  scale  of 
colors  that  can  be  kept  for  reference  purposes  for  an 
indefinite  time,  unless  left  exposed  to  strong  light,  which  will 
tend  to  fade  some  of  the  colors,  particularly  the  violet-red 
and  green. 

21.  A  Working  Seale  of  Broken  Spectrum  Colors. 
In  Fig.  6,  Color  Chart  E,  is  shown  a  scale  of  broken  spec¬ 
trum  hues.  By  broken  hues  we  mean  spectrum  colors  that 
are  modified  by  the  addition  of  both  black  and  white.  Such 
modification  has  the  effect  of  graying  the  color  or  making  it 
less  intense  by  the  addition  of  neutral  gray.  It  will  be  borne 
in  mind  that  a  mixture  of  black  and  white  produces  a  neutral 
gray,  that  the  addition  of  white  to  the  pure  color  reduces  the 
color  to  a  tint,  while  the  addition  of  black  produces  a  shade, 


22 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


6 


and  the  addition  of  black  and  white  together  produces  a 
broken  hue  by  the  introduction  of  gray  to  the  color. 

In  the  color  book  are  found  three  tones  each  of  twelve  of 
the  broken  spectrum  hues.  These  should  be  arranged  on 
a  card  inches  by  26  inches,  together  with  the  eight 
grays,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6.  The  inner  space  containing 
the  colors  measures  4-g  inches  by  19f  inches  and  the  colored 
slips  are  li  inches  wide  by  1}  inches  long,  with  a  space  of 
i  inch  between  them,  except  between  orange  and  yellow- 
orange  and  between  violet-blue  and  blue,  where  the  space 
may  be  increased  to  |  inch  so  that  the  chart  may  be  cut  and 
folded  in  the  same  manner  as  Color  Chart  D.  The  gray 
slips  are  2  inches  long  by  lg-  inches  wide  with  \  inch 
between  them. 

In  working  out  a  color  scheme,  these  two  charts  may  be 
used  in  conjunction,  and  the  color  arrangement  of  a  special 
design  may  be  effected  by  selections  from  each.  The 
broken  colors  are  far  easier  to  combine  harmoniously  than 
the  pure  spectrum  colors,  but  practice  is  necessary  in  order 
that  one  may  become  familiar  with  both  scales,  and  the 
ability  to  intelligently  combine  them  gives  one  the  greatest 
freedom  in  polychromic  design. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  COLOR  HARMONIES 

22.  To  the  textile  worker  and  designer,  a  system  of 
classification  in  color  harmony  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest 
importance.  Various  authorities  have  endeavored  to  estab¬ 
lish  one  that  would  embrace,  under  a  limited  number  of 
heads,  every  possible  combination.  The  object  of  this  is  to 
enable  one  person  to  communicate  to  another  the  exact 
shade  of  color  referred  to  by  means  of  a  symbol  or  a  name, 
so  that  samples  of  colors  need  not  be  furnished  in  each 
particular  case  in  order  to  properly  execute  a  given  design. 

A  more  comprehensive  classification  than  most  of  these 
has  been  prepared  by  Henry  T.  Bailey;  it  includes  all  colors 
under  the  following  five  heads:  Contrasted,  dominant, 
complementary,  analogous,  and  perfected. 


o 

c n 
CD 

T3 

a; 

4— < 

C/) 

-(— > 
c 

cd 

c3 

4— > 

c 

<D 

00 

X 

o 

Tj 

CD 

H — > 

Q- 

E 

od 

4— ' 

(— 

c 

c 

fc 

E 

jd 

too 

_o 

od 

and 

CD 

CD 

h— . 
j— 

O 

E 

i-H 

c « 

•— i 

o 

o 

cx 

c 

CD 

X 

UJ 

\_D 

o 

a 

E 

o 

< 

D_ 

n: 

14596 


§6 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


23 


In  contrasted  harmonies ,  color  is  opposed  to  non-color;  or 
active  color  is  opposed  to  passive  color,  such  as  a  spectrum 
color  opposed  to  black,  white,  gray,  silver,  or  gold.  Fig.  7 
illustrates  contrasted  harmony  where  it  shows  two  tones  of 
red  contrasted  with  gray  and  white. 

Dominant  harmony  is  where  different  tones  are  combined 
in  one  color  scale,  as  shown  in  Fig.  8.  Combinations  of 
this  kind  are  termed  self-color,  as  they  consist  of  a  variation 
of  similar  colors  but  of  different  tones.  In  this  figure,  six 
tones  of  yellow  have  been  employed  to  produce  this  effect. 

Complementary  harmonies  is  where  complementary  colors 
are  contrasted;  that  is  to  say,  where  orange  is  contrasted 
with  blue,  red  with  green,  etc.  In  combinations  of  this 
character  it  is  desirable  that  tones  should  be  opposed  to  one 
another  as  well  as  colors  or  there  is  an  unpleasant  effect  of 
movement  in  the  color  called  dancing.  Red  and  green 
possess  this  peculiarity  to  a  very  marked  degree,  partic¬ 
ularly  when  the  hues  are  actually  equal  in  tone.  Tints  of  one 
hue  opposed  to  shades  of  the  opposite  will  overcome  this  diffi¬ 
culty,  and  the  introduction  of  several  tones  of  the  same  color 
will  tend  to  lessen  it,  as  shown  in  Fig.  9,  where  two  tones 
of  blue  outlined  in  green  are  contrasted  with  two  tones  of 
orange-yellow,  thus  forming  a  complementary  harmony. 

Analogous  harmony  is  formed  by  combining  tones  of  analo¬ 
gous  colors;  that  is,  colors  that  stand  near  one  another  in  a 
spectrum  scale,  such  as  yellow,  green-yellow,  and  orange- 
yellow,  or  blue,  green-blue,  and  violet-blue.  Such  combi¬ 
nations  are  usually  better  when  contrasted  in  tone,  though 
the  intervals  should  not  be  too  great,  and  the  effect  may  be 
seen  in  Fig.  10  where  tones  of  broken  green,  green-yellow, 
and  orange  are  employed  with  great  softness  of  effect. 

Perfected  harmony  is  where  analogous  colors  are  combined 
with  the  complementary  of  the  key  color — by  key  color  we 
mean  the  color  that  they  possess  in  common.  For  example, 
orange-yellow  and  yellow-green  are  combined  in  contrast 
with  blue — blue  being  the  complementary  of  the  key  color; 
yellow  is  common  to  both  the  other  colors,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  11.  Perfected  harmony  exists  also  in  combinations 


24 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


6 


where  two  sets  of  analogous  colors  are  complementary  to 
each  other.  It  is  a  complementary  harmony  of  much  greater 
latitude  as  it  takes  in  colors  on  either  side  of  the  opposing 
pairs;  for  instance,  the  group  surrounding  yellow  is  opposed 
to  the  group  surrounding  blue. 

By  this  system  of  classification  of  color  harmonies,  the 
student  is  not  possessed  of  the  mere  mechanical  means  for 
the  formation  of  the  best  color  combinations,  but  rather  is 
given  a  suggestion  as  to  what  constitutes  a  safe  combina¬ 
tion  of  colors  in  the  direction  of  harmony. 

Knowledge  of  this  character  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
to  the  student  as  he  uses  positive  color  for  the  first  time,  as 
it  gives  him  a  firm  understanding  by  which  he  may  proceed 
and  prevents  wild  and  erratic  attempts  to  produce  effects 
without  knowing  the  reason  or  the  theory.  It  is  an  acknowl¬ 
edged  fact  that  some  persons  seem  to  be  possessed  naturally 
with  a  color  sense  so  that  they  can  make  good  combinations 
and  satisfactory  harmonies  without  any  apparent  effort, 
while  others  of  apparently  equal  intelligence  seem  utterly 
helpless  when  confronted  with  the  color  problem,  and  if  left 
to  themselves  frequently  make  the  most  inharmonious  com¬ 
binations  without  apparently  being  able  in  any  way  to  avoid 
this  bad  practice. 

23.  Students  of  color  harmony  should  make  several 
schemes  of  color,  illustrating  the  five  classes  of  color 
harmony.  Probably  the  most  useful  exercise  is  the 
attempt  to  classify,  under  each  of  the  different  heads 
above  set  forth,  such  color  combinations  as  are  observed 
in  nature  and  in  applied  color.  Color  Chart  D  of  spectrum 
scales,  together  with  Color  Chart  E,  presents  an  almost 
inexhaustible  source  of  color  schemes. 

First,  the  five  tones  in  the  scale  of  any  hue  furnish  satis¬ 
factory  dominant  harmonies  or  self-color  combinations,  and 
these  tones  can  be  extended  unlimitedly  by  the  admixture 
of  black  or  white. 

Second,  the  block  of  fifteen  tones  formed  by  fifteen  con¬ 
secutive  columns  furnishes  excellent  material  for  analogous 


§6 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


25 


harmonies.  But  it  is  by  no  means  necessary  that  one  should 
confine  himself  strictly  within  the  limits  set  forth,  as  further 
variations  of  light  and  shade  are  always  permissible  by  the 
good  judgment  of  the  student.  In  combining  colors  that 
are  closely  related  to  each  other,  it  is  a  good  rule  to  bear  in 
mind  that  it  is  bad  practice  to  combine  a  shade  of  a  bright 
color  with  a  tint  of  a  dark  color,  as  this  destroys  the  char¬ 
acteristics  of  die  two  colors.  Such  combinations  should  be 
so  graded  that  the  bright  color  will  always  be  the  lighter 
and  the  dark  color  the  darker  of  the  two.  For  instance,  dark 
shades  of  orange  with  pale  tints  of  red,  or  shades  of  yellow 
with  tints  of  green,  make  a  very  bad  combination. 

Third,  the  scales  of  the  pairs  of  colors,  numbers  1  and  11, 
3  and  12,  5  and  13,  8  and  14,  and  10  and  17,  when  combined, 
form  complementary  harmonies.  In  employing  combina¬ 
tions  of  this  character  it  must  be  borne  well  in  mind  that 
they  always  involve  a  contrast  of  the  warm  and  cold  colors, 
as  the  colors  from  1  to  10  are  warm  and  those  from  11  to  18 
are  cold.  The  warm  colors  advance  and  make  themselves 
(  mspicuous,  while  the  cold  colors  are  retiring  and  tend  to 
withdraw  toward  shadows.  The  latter  effect  is  more  strongly 
marked  where  combinations  of  colors  between  3  and  8  are 
effected  with  those  from  12  to  16.  Where  a  design  is  exe¬ 
cuted  in  a  reddish  orange  on  a  blue  background,  it  will 
stand  out  and  appear  to  detach  itself  from  the  ground  and 
give  forwards  an  effect  that  is  particularly  noticeable  in 
designs  for  stained  glass,  where  the  lead  lines  increase  the 
effect  of  difference  in  plane  between  the  two  colors.  This 
is  an  exceedingly  important  point  in  the  consideration  of 
backgrounds;  for,  as  a  rule,  dark  cold  colors  make  satis¬ 
factory  backgrounds  for  patterns  in  warm  hues,  and  dark 
warm  colors  are  satisfactory  as  backgrounds  when  the  pat¬ 
tern  is  in  light  cold  hues.  But  if  the  intensity  of  the 
background  and  the  pattern  is  about  equal,  the  warmer 
colors  advance  and  the  cold  colors  retire.  The  greens 
found  at  d',a',e,  and  c,  in  Color  Chart  C,  and  their  comple- 
mentaries  d,  a ,  e' ,  and  c'  are  the  most  difficult  to  manage  of 
any  pairs.  Their  contrasts  are  hard  if  used  full  strength, 


26  DISTEMPER  COLOR  §6 

but  are  satisfactory  when  reduced  to  shades,  tints,  or  broken 
colors.  Blue  and  yellow  make  a  brilliant  combination  and 
are  used  more  extensively  than  any  other  colors  in  decora¬ 
tive  design.  Next  to  these,  in  point  of  general  use,  we  find 
the  green-blue  contrasted  with  orange  and  then  violet 


TABLE  II 

COMBINED  PAIRS  OE  SPECTRUM  HUES 


Hue 

Combined 

With 

Effect 

Hue 

Combined 

With 

Effect 

2 

i  or  3 

good 

7 

12  or  13 

fairly  good 

2 

4,5,  6,  or  7 

bad 

7 

14  or  15 

very  good 

2 

00 

VO 

o 

o 

moderate 

7 

16  or  17 

good 

2 

1 1 

|  powerful 

7 

18  or  1 

fairly  good 

[but  harsh 

7 

2,  3,  4,  or  5 

bad 

2 

12  or  13 

fair 

8 

7  or  9 

good 

2 

14  or  15 

very  good 

8 

10, 1 1, or  12 

bad 

2 

16,  17,  or  18 

bad 

8 

13 

moderate 

3 

2  or  4 

good 

8 

[ 14, 15, 16, 

very  good 

3 

5,  6,  or  7 

bad 

lor  17 

3 

00 

0 

0 

•-i 

O 

moderate 

8 

18 

good 

n  or  12 

{  powerful 

8 

1,  2,  or  3 

moderate 

J 

[but  harsh 

8 

4,  5,  or  6 

bad 

3 

13, 14, or  15 

very  good 

10 

9  or  1 1 

good 

3 

16 

moderate 

10 

12 

fair 

3 

17,  18,  or  1 

bad 

10 

13 

not  good 

5 

4  or  6 

good 

10 

14,15,  or  16 

good 

5 

7,  8,  or  9 

bad 

10 

J-l 

O 

cc 

very  good 

5 

10  or  1 1 

fairly  good 

10 

2,  3,  or  4 

moderate 

5 

12, 13, or  14 

{very  good 

1  (powerful) 

10 

1 1 

5,  6,  7,  or  8 

10  or  12 

bad 

good 

5 

15, 16, or  17 

fairly  good 

1 1 

13, 14, or  15 

bad 

5 

18 

moderate 

1 1 

16,  17,  or  18 

moderate 

5 

1,  2,  or  3 

bad 

1 1 

i,  2,  or  3 

harsh 

7 

6  or  8 

good 

1 1 

4,  5,  6,  or  8 

fair 

7 

9,  10,  or  1 1 

bad 

1 1 

7  or  9 

bad 

§6 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


27 


contrasted  with  greenish  yellow.  As  a  general  rule,  true 
complementaries  make  a  better  appearance  than  colors  only 
approximately  so,  but  modifications  in  the  tone  of  a  color 
make  no  difference  in  its  relation  to  its  complementary 
color.  Thus,  any  tone  in  the  yellow  scale  is  complemen¬ 
tary  to  any  tone  in  the  blue  scale. 

Fourth,  a  selection  of  hues  from  any  block  of  fifteen  tones 
formed  by  three  consecutive  columns  of  the  chart,  when 
combined  with  the  complementary  of  the  key  color,  forms  a 
perfected  harmony.  For  example,  a  selection  made  from 
the  block  7,  8,  9,  including  colors  from  each  of  the  scales, 
combines  with  hues  in  scale  14.  This  class  of  harmonies 
can  be  made  exceedingly  effective  by  including  the  colors 
lying  on  either  side  of  the  complementary  hue,  thus  con¬ 
trasting  two  sets  of  analogous  hues,  as  7,  8,  9  with  13,  14,  15, 
or  4,  5,  6  with  12, 13,  14. 

24.  In  Table  II,  combinations  of  pairs  of  spectrum 
hues  will  be  found  useful  in  connection  with  the  chart 
of  spectrum  scales. 

It  will  be  seen  by  Table  II  that,  as  a  rule,  the  best  colors 
to  combine  to  give  color  are  those  a  little  beyond  the  com¬ 
plementary  of  that  color.  For  instance,  No.  3  combines 
best,  not  with  12,  but  with  13,  14,  and  15,  the  best  combina¬ 
tion  being  with  14.  It  is  well  to  observe,  too,  that  the 
perfected  harmonies  involve  the  use  of  the  best  combinations. 

25.  Triads. — Up  to  the  present  we  have  considered 
only  combinations  of  two  hues.  Let  us  now  look  into  the 
combination  that  can  be  effected  with  three  hues,  commonly 
termed  triads. 

26.  Influence  of  the  Proportioning  of  Masses. — The 
success  of  these  combinations  is  dependent  as  much  on  the 
proportioning  of  the  masses  as  on  the  hues  themselves. 
Some  colors  combine  harshly  if  used  in  equal  masses,  but 
if  skilfully  proportioned  one  to  the  other,  the  harshness  is 
overcome  and  a  satisfactory  harmony  produced.  Any  of 
these  combinations  can  be  varied  unlimitedly  by  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  several  tones  of  the  various  colors  given,  or  by 


28 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


§6 


combining  these  colors  with  neutrals — black,  white,  gray,  or 
gold — using  these  neutrals  in  outlines  or  in  small  masses  in 
order  to  emphasize  the  effect. 

These  hints  on  color  harmony  are  given,  not  as  hard 
and  fast  rules  by  which  one  can  mathematically  calculate 


TABLE  III 

COMBINATIONS  OF  THREE  HUES 


Hue 

Combined 

With 

Hue 

Combined 

With 

i  Hue 

Combined 

With 

I 

5 

4 

I 

8 

7 

11 

13 

10  S.  2 

D3 

T7 

1 5  T.  1 

2 

6  S.  1 

1 

2 

< 

10 

8 

10  S.  2 

14 

8 

14 

15  S.  2 

Br.  Green 

2 

5 

16  T.  2 

3 

- 

7 

9 

Br.  Blue  M 

IS 

5  S.  1 

14 

6  T.  2 

10 

3 

2  S.  1 

3  S.  2 

4 

< 

1 1 

10 

< 

Br.  Blue  D 

16 

< 

7 

16 

9  S.  2 

12  T.i 

3 

x 

3 

5 

< 

8 

1 1 

5  T.  2 

17 

< 

9  S.  2 

14 

P3 

13  S.  2 

5 

7  T.  x 

1 1  S.  1 

6 

•« 

12 

12 

- 

1 1  S.  2 

18 

< 

6  T.  2 

,8 

1 7 

1  T.  2 

exactly  what  is  required  in  each  instance,  but  as  sugges¬ 
tions  on  lines  along  which  he  can  experiment  and  effect 
combinations  that  are  efforts  in  the  right  direction  and  likely 
to  lead  to  success. 

In  making  these  experiments  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  one  must  study  the  relations  of  colors  to  each  other 
very  closely,  both  in  pairs  and  in  triads,  before  any  attempt 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


29 


§  6 

is  made  to  more  complex  arrangements.  Red  and  blue  used 
together  in  their  full  strength  are  harsh,  and  tints  and 
shades  of  these  colors  should  be  experimented  with  as  well 
as  combinations  of  each  of  them  with  another  color  until  one 
is  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  mental  effect  that  is  produced 
by  the  combinations  of  certain  shades,  tints,  and  hues. 
Combinations  of  three  colors  can  then  be  experimented  with, 
increasing  the  intensity  of  one  over  another  in  order  to  give 
it  prominence.  But  the  mind  should  be  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  effect  that  one  color  has  on  another  before  complex 
arrangements  requiring  two  or  more  colors  in  combination 
with  neutrals  or  with  shades  of  other  colors  are  attempted. 


COLOR  SCHEMES  FROM  NATURE 
27.  Natural  Forms  Tliat  Furnish  Color  Schemes. 

There  is  probably  no  more  fruitful  source  of  color  ideas  than 
nature  itself.  The  colorist  awake  to  his  studies  can  see  in 
every  object  before  him  combinations  of  lights  and  shades, 
tints  and  tones,  that  in  themselves  are  pleasing.  Observe, 
for  instance,  the  beautiful  blending  of  color  in  the  rainbow. 
The  several  spectrum  colors  are  here  softened  by  the  atmos¬ 
phere,  modified  from  simple  contrast,  and  blended  one  into 
the  other  to  form  a  beautiful  arch  that  is  not  harsh  in  any  of 
its  combinations,  as  the  effect  is  softened  by  atmospheric 
influence.  However,  it  is  not  with  such  brilliant  subjects  as 
this  that  the  colorist  is  to  deal  in  studying  nature  for  color 
schemes.  We  have  in  all  objects  a  range  of  color  effects 
that  is  so  varied  that  in  two  examples  of  the  same  subject 
we  find  separate  ideas.  In  the  sky,  in  the  water  reflecting 
the  sky,  in  the  earth  and  all  vegetation  growing  therefrom, 
we  find  a  myriad  of  forms  and  suggestions  abundant  in  color 
that  is  wonderfully  harmonious  and  wonderfully  fit.  While 
it  seems  scarcely  necessary  to  enumerate  the  natural  forms 
from  which  one  might  draw  a  color  inspiration,  a  few  of  them 
might  be  pointed  out  as  follows:  Flowers  and  leaves,  fruits 
and  vegetables,  insects,  such  as  butterflies,  dragon  flies,  bees, 
etc.,  the  plumage  of  birds,  the  coats  of  animals,  shells,  fish, 


30 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


§6 


metals,  minerals  of  all  kinds,  and  all  articles  that  have  been 
affected  in  color  by  age,  action  of  the  elements,  or  heat. 
Gold,  silver,  copper,  brass,  bronze,  and  steel  furnish  a 
multitude  of  suggestions  for  color  schemes,  particularly 
when  color-tarnished,  oxidized,  or  discolored  through  unequal 
heating.  The  same  object  will  never  produce  the  same  effect 
under  precisely  similar  conditions. 

Figs.  7,  8,  9,  10,  and  11  clearly  illustrate  that  the  general 
appearance  of  a  design  is  materially  affected  by  changing 
the  color  scheme,  and  therefore  one  should  always  alter  his 
color  scheme  either  in  arrangement  or  in  depth  of  tone  in 
order  to  produce  the  best  effects. 

The  success  of  a  color  scheme  depends  as  much  on  the 
proportion  as  on  the  combination,  and  in  changing  a  scheme 
of  color  from  nature  that  is  particularly  pleasing,  one  must 
be  learned  to  be  able  to  estimate,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the 
proportions  in  which  nature  has  used  the  various  colors  in 
order  to  produce  the  apparent  effect,  and  also  the  arrange¬ 
ment  of  the  hues  and  direct  digression  in  order  to  blend  one 
color  into  another,  as  an  unwise  combination  of  these  will 
be  very  likely  to  result  in  a  direct  reversal  of  the  end  sought. 

In  Fig.  12  is  shown  a  suggestion  for  a  block  of  squared 
paper  about  2 h  inches  each  side.  This  is  subdivided  at 
intervals  of  1  inch  so  as  to  make  a  series  of  100  squares, 
10  on  each  side.  Thus,  in  analyzing  a  color  scheme,  the 
percentage  of  each  color,  tint,  and  shade  can  be  estimated 
and  painted  with  brush  on  the  series  of  squares  in  order  to 
produce  a  proper  record.  In  Fig.  12,  the  scheme  is  from  a 
butterfly’s  wing.  Experiments  of  this  kind  are  very  inter¬ 
esting  and  exceedingly  valuable  in  training  the  mind,  not 
only  to  appreciate  color,  but  to  appreciate  its  proportion. 

28.  Requisite  in  Training  Color  Perception. — The 
first  requisite  in  training  the  color  perception  is  that  the  stu¬ 
dent  should  use  color  constantly,  and  become  thoroughly 
familiar  with  it.  He  should  avoid  all  combinations  that  he 
knows  to  be  bad  color  and  not  attempt  brilliant  strokes  of 
color.  The  combinations  of  color  that  appear  soft  and 


Fig.  12 


145% 


6 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


31 


unpretentious  are  the  ones  he  should  study  most  closely, 
while  glaring  figures  in  brilliant  hues  should  be  strenuously 
avoided  either  as  subjects  of  study  or  experiment  until  a 
thorough  appreciation  of  color  harmony  is  understood. 

29.  Careful  consideration  of  the  standard  combinations 
will  so  train  the  eye  that  it  will  soon  be  able  to  “feel”  the 
harmony  or  discord  of  a  combination  without  reasoning  out 
the  theory,  just  as  the  ear  will  recognize  a  harmony  or  discord 
in  music  without  realizing  the  intervals.  The  experienced 
colorist  will  conceive  a  mental  picture  of  the  way  he  wants 
his  design  to  appear  and  will  work  out  the  design  accordingly. 
The  inexperienced  designer  is  likely  to  endeavor  to  work  up 
a  color  scheme  by  experiment — this  almost  invariably  results 
in  disaster.  A  color  scheme  should  be  worked  out  mentally 
as  a  whole,  each  hue  having  its  value  and  proportion  and 
the  whole  general  effect  clearly  understood  so  that  the 
designer  has  but  to  work  it  out  on  his  cartoon. 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


BOOKBINDING 


EARLY  STAGES  OF  THE  ART 

1.  Character  of  Bookcover  Design. — The  modern 
designer  of  bookcovers,  book  plates,  and  other  productions 
of  the  printing  press  is  confronted  with  a  problem  entirely 
different  from  that  demanding  solution  by  the  designer  of 
repeating  ornament.  Bookcover  designs  usually  contain, 
first,  the  title  of  the  book,  and  second,  some  piece  of  char¬ 
acteristic  ornament  that  is  in  harmony  with,  or  symbolic  of, 
something  contained  in  the  book  itself,  or  the  subject  on 
which  it  treats,  or  of  the  series  or  set  of  which  it  is  a  unit. 
A  book  plate  differs  from  a  bookcover  in  the  fact  that  it 
usually  faces  the  title  page  and  its  elements  are  character¬ 
istic  of  the  owner  of  the  work,  and  are  not  associated  with 
any  detail  in  the  narrative.  The  initial  letters  that  are 
sometimes  used  to  head  the  chapters  may  be  associated 
with  the  same  ideas  as  the  cover,  or  they  may  consist  of 
simple  abstract  ornament  in  no  way  associated  with  the 
chapter  that  they  introduce. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  while  harmony 
of  idea  is  not  demanded,  discord  must  be  avoided,  and  a 
book  the  contents  of  which  is  suggestive  of  classic  history 
or  art  could  not  be  printed  with  initial  letters  designed  in 
the  Gothic  style,  except  through  a  violation  of  the  funda¬ 
mental  principles  of  design. 

2.  Origin  of  Bookbinding. — It  must  also  be  borne  in 
mind  that  every  device  of  a  utilitarian  character  had  at  the 


For  notice  of  copyright,  see  page  immediately  following  the  title  page 

§7 


2 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


§7 


time  of  its  origin  a  primitive  form,  and  the  associations  of 
this  form,  from  its  origin  to  the  present  day,  have  had  more 
or  less  influence  on  the  character  of  its  design.  The  old 
methods  of  engrossing  on  parchment  facts  for  preservation, 
made  these  documents  very  rare  and  valuable,  and  the 
scrolls  on  which  they  were  usually  written  were  wound 
around  a  stick  and  placed  within  a  metallic  tube  in  order  to 
preserve  them.  The  makers  of  these  metallic  tubes,  usually 
silversmiths  and  goldsmiths,  therefore  were  in  reality  the 
first  bookbinders.  In  later  periods,  pages  were  engrossed 
similar  to  those  in  our  paper  books  and  bound  together  to 
form  a  volume  not  unlike  our  common  books  of  today.  But 
still  the  binder  was  employed  only  to  sew  the  pages  together, 
and  the  silversmith  and  goldsmith  did  the  elaborate  work  of 
designing  and  fitting  it  to  the  book.  Naturally,  these  vol¬ 
umes  were  a  very  expensive  lot  of  documents  and  could  be 
possessed  only  by  the  most  wealthy. 

The  introduction  of  printing  and  the  printing  press  brought 
books  within  the  reach  of  every  one  and  revolutionized  book 
printing,  bookbinding,  and  bookcover  designing. 

3.  Character  of  Early  Bindings. — In  the  earliest 
times  of  bookbinding,  the  work  of  the  cover  was  in  the  hands 
of  the  leather  worker  and  the  goldsmith,  as  the  bookbinder, 
as  understood  by  us  at  the  present  day,  had  not  then  come 
into  existence.  Rare  and  beautiful  volumes,  representing 
hours  and  hours  of  laborious  productions  of  the  scribes  and 
the  artists,  were  incased  in  befitting  covers  of  gold  and 
silver  or  ivory,  and  frequently  enriched  with  precious  stones. 
Such  volumes  were  obtainable  only  by  the  king,  or,  possibly, 
the  library  of  a  church  or  monastery. 

When  princes  and  nobles  took  an  interest  in  matters  liter¬ 
ary,  as  they  did  at  a  subsequent  time,  manuscripts  became 
more  common,  and  these  costly  bindings  were  superseded 
by  bindings  of  velvet  and  satin  and,  afterwards,  by  leather. 
The  invention  of  printing,  making  books  producible  in  a 
large  quantity,  made  a  still  less  expensive  material  desirable, 
and  leather  formed  the  binding  material  of  nearly  all  books, 


7 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


3 


but  the  decorative  work  was  carried  out  on  its  surface  in 
gold  leaf  and  enamel  colors. 

During  the  time  of  Charles  VIII  and  Louis  XII  in  France, 
many  books  were  collected  for  the  royal  library,  and  Anne 
of  Brittany,  who  was  the  wife  of  each  of  these  monarchs  and 
shared  with  them  the  love  of  literature,  bought  and  ordered 
specially  printed  volumes  for  her  library. 

4.  Heraldry  in  Bookbinding-. — It  will  be  necessary 
to  consider  only  a  few  of  these  early  bindings  in  order  to 
obtain  an  idea  of  the  great  pains  that  was  taken  with  this  class 
of  work,  and  to  understand  that  the  style  of  ornament  pre¬ 
vailing  in  each  particular  period  influenced  bookcover  design 
more  than  did  the  contents  of  the  book  itself.  The  fact  that 
the  books  were  bound  individually  and  not  in  numerous 
quantities,  led  each  king  or  queen  to  stamp  on  the  cover  his 
or  her  coat  of  arms  or  initials,  and  this  serves  to  identify 
many  volumes  for  us  at  the  present  day. 

Stamping  the  owner’s  coat  of  arms  or  initials  on  the 
cover  of  a  book  was  in  reality  the  prototype  of  our  modern 
book  plate,  for  the  book  plate  stamped  on  or  in  a  book  is 
usually  placed  there  as  a  mark  of  ownership  rather  than  in 
any  way  relative  to  the  subject  bound. 


TOOLS 

5.  Early  Designs  Governed  by  the  Tools. — To  fully 
understand  the  character  of  early  bookcover  designs  in 
leather  and  gold,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  limits 
of  the  design  were  governed  very  largely  by  the  tools  in  use 
by  the  leather  worker.  This  term  tools  refers  to  the  imple¬ 
ments  on  the  end  of  which  little  devices,  or  ornaments,  are 
cut;  each  tool  is  separately  used  to  transfer  the  design  to 
the  leather. 

When  leather  was  first  used  as  a  bookcover  material,  most 
of  the  work  was  done  in  the  monasteries,  as  there  were  no 
regular  binderies  at  that  time.  The  designs  that  these  monks 
and  craftsmen  invented  were  made  up  largely  of  motives 
borrowed  from  manuscript,  initial  letters,  etc.,  and  from 


4 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


7 


carvings  in  wood  and  scone  that  they  would  naturally  observe 
in  the  various  churches  and  monasteries. 

6.  Influence  of  Increase  of  Binding  on  Character 
of  Design. — The  love  of  learning  and  the  spread  of  books 
became  so  important,  however,  that  the  monastery  workshops 
were  unequal  to  the  task,  and  leather  workers  of  all  sorts 
were  pressed  into  service  to  bind  the  numerous  books  that 
were  springing  into  existence.  Saddlers,  harness  makers, 
and  even  bootmakers  were  called  on  to  do  the  work,  and 
the  new  trade  of  bookbinding  was  influenced  not  only  by 
their  skill  as  craftsmen,  but  also  by  the  character  of  the  tools 
that  they  had  been  using  in  their  various  crafts,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  by  the  designs  that  they  had  used  for  years  in 
the  ornamentation  of  boots,  saddles,  and  harnesses  for  royal 
personages.  The  artisans  themselves  were  humble  men, 
few  knowing  even  how  to  read  and  write,  and  we  therefore 
find  the  earliest  leather  bindings  stamped  with  devices  that 
are  in  no  way  relevant  to  books  or  book  work,  but  that  have 
become  characteristic  of  bookbindings  of  the  present  day 
simply  on  account  of  this  original  association. 

The  binder  being  familiar  with  the  extent  to  which  he 
could  interchange  his  tools,  conceived  the  general  scheme 
of  his  cover  decoration,  then  by  a  combination  and  repeti¬ 
tion  of  the  forms  on  these  tools  created  his  design.  These 
designs  therefore  varied  according  to  the  fertility  of  the  mind 
of  the  designer  and  the  prevailing  tastes  of  succeeding  periods 
of  time.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  that  familiarity  with  these 
tools  should  be  possessed  by  the  student  in  order  that  a  real 
understanding  of  bookcover  designing  may  be  attained. 

7 .  Origin  of  French.  Tools. — In  the  period  of  Louis  XII 
of  France,  the  forms  of  the  tools  used  were  borrowed  from 
Italian  devices,  wherein  arabesque  figures  were  stamped  in 
black  on  white  paper;  but  the  French  worker  soon  learned 
that  this  heavy  black  mass,  though  suitable  to  a  white  page, 
was  utterly  unsuited  for  stamping  in  gold  on  the  cover  of 
a  book.  It  therefore  was  usual  to  stamp  the  devices  in 
outline,  or  sometimes  in  outline  with  the  interior  slightly 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


5 


shaded,  or  azured,  as  this  form  is  technically  known,  thus 
giving  the  binder  not  only  a  means  of  varying  the  weight 
of  his  device  but  also  a  variety  by  a  combination  of  which 
strength  or  lightness  was  acquired. 

These  tools  in  their  three  forms  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  1, 
where  at  (a)  are  shown  the  tools  as  derived  from  Italy  in 
their  solid  form,  at  (b)  their  variation  by  simply  the  use  of 
outline,  and  at  (c)  their  further  variation  by  the  shading 
of  the  outline  in  order  to  give  a  little  more  strength.  The 


(a) 


form  of  these  devices  is  plainly  borrowed  from  the  ara¬ 
besques  of  Italy,  and,  separated  from  the  elaborate  inter¬ 
lacings  with  which  they  were  there  associated,  show  their 
outline  to  be  distinctively  of  oriental  or  Arabian  origin,  from 
which  they  derived  their  name  as  arabesques.  These  simple 
devices  connected  by  a  long  line  of  scrolls  and  interlaced 
bands  formed  the  entire  theme  of  bookcover  design  during 
the  first  period  of  the  French  Renaissance. 


EARLY  INFLUENCES  AND  STYLES 
8.  Grolier. — The  styles  of  bookcover  design  that  pre¬ 
vailed  in  different  periods,  unlike  the  style  of  ornament  that 
is  characteristic  of  each  period,  usually  take  their  names 
from  their  designers  rather  than  from  the  ruling  monarch. 
For  instance,  many  of  the  bookcovers  made  during  the  reigns 


6 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


7 


of  Louis  XII  and  Francis  I  are  designated  as  the  Grolier 
style ,  inasmuch  as  the  art  was  introduced  into  France  from 
Italy  by  a  great  collector  of  books,  named  Grolier;  this 
style  includes  both  the  prevalent  character  of  binding  found 
in  Italy  and  a  later  style  in  France. 


Fig.  2 

Grolier  assisted  in  the  production  of  many  volumes  that 
were  printed  on  the  press  of  Aldus  Manutius,  a  celebrated 
Venetian  printer,  and  in  recognition  of  his  services  many 
volumes  were  beautifully  bound  for  Giolier  s  own  library. 
In  the  year  1545,  Grolier  obtained  the  position  of  Treasurer- 
General  in  France,  and  held  it  until  his  death,  in  1565,  thereby 


7 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


7 


establishing  his  great  library  of  three  thousand  volumes  of 
fine  Italian  bound  books  in  the  heart  of  France,  near  Paris. 

These  books  were  mostly  bound  in  morocco,  the  finest 
skins  for  which  were  procured  from  the  Orient,  though  a 
few  were  covered  with  calfskin,  the  earlier  works  possessing 
the  characteristics  of  the  Italian  Aldine  press,  the  later  ones 
being  modified  under  the  influence  of  binding  in  France. 


Fig.  3 

9.  Characteristics  of  Italian  Bookbinding.  —  In 
Fig.  2  is  shown  a  binding  in  the  Italian  style  on  a  book 
printed  in  Venice  in  the  year  1525.  This  shows  the  char¬ 
acteristics  of  this  Italian  work  and  the  form  of  arabesque 
patterns  that  were  introduced  into  France  during  the  reign 


8  BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING  $' 

of  Louis  XII.  Here  are  seen  the  impressions  of  the  tools  of 
the  Aldine  press,  pointed  out  in  Fig.  1  (a),  united  with  the 
scrolls  and  arabesque  panel  ornament  characteristic  of  the 
Italian  Renaissance.  In  Fig.  3  is  shown  another  design 
from  Venice  bound  for  Grolier,  whereon  a  panel  is  left  in 
the  middle  that  subsequently  might  receive  a  coat  of  arms. 


Fig.  4 

Here  the  tools  are  still  similar  to  those  used  on  the  Aldine 
press  and  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  style  of  book  design  when 
first  introduced  into  France. 

10.  In  Fig.  4  is  illustrated  a  book  that  was  bound  under 
orders  of  Henry  II  for  Diana  of  Poiters  to  be  placed  in  her 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


9 


library,  and  stamped  on  its  cover  are  the  interwoven  initials 
H  and  D  indicative  of  these  two  names,  while  in  the  upper 
right-hand  and  lower  left-hand  corners  of  the  central  panel 
are  the  three  intertwined  crescents  of  the  coat  of  arms  of 
Diana.  The  cover  of  this  book  was  of  citron  morocco  and 
is  a  characteristic  binding  of  this  period,  1545. 


Fig.  5 


11.  The  bookcover  shown  in  Fig.  5,  bound  in  1556  by 
Henry  II,  shows  a  type  of  ornament  entirely  different  from 
the  previous  example,  and  in  the  center  is  a  raised  medallion 
with  a  profile  portrait  of  the  king  himself.  This  cover 
was  of  brown  morocco  leather  with  painted  bands  and  gilt 


10 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


§7 


trimmings;  except  the  portrait,  no  initials  or  other  devices 
were  placed  on  the  outside  of  it. 


12.  The  bookcover  shown  in  Fig.  6  was  bound  in  1562 
for  Katherine  de  Medici,  and  the  coat  of  arms  on  its  center 
was  that  of  her  family.  The  back  of  the  book  was  orna¬ 
mented  in  each  panel  with  a  crowned  K,  the  initial  of  her 


Fig.  6 


name,  and  the  whole  was  executed  in  dark  blue,  green,  and 
gold  on  leather  of  olive  morocco;  however,  the  central  oval 
panel  around  the  coat  of  arms  was  painted  red. 

13.  In  Fig.  7  is  shown  a  design  executed  in  brown 
morocco  for  Henry  III,  with  gilt  ornamentation  including 


§7 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


11 


the  cipher  initials  of  the  king  and  queen  and  the  coat  of  arms 
in  the  center.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  ciphers  and 
fleur-de-lis  forming  the  ornament  on  this  design  partake  of 
the  character  of  a  spot  and  powder  design  limited  at  the 
angles  by  especially  designed  corner  pieces. 


Fig.  7 


14.  In  Fig.  8  is  shown  a  design  executed  in  red  morocco 
for  Henry  IV,  in  1604,  the  central  ornament  being  composed 
of  his  coat  of  arms;  in  the  outer  limits  of  the  border  surround¬ 
ing  it  are  found  his  initials  intertwined  with  those  of  his 
queen,  Margaret  of  Valois. 

15.  The  change  in  the  character  of  design  at  this  period 
can  be  readily  compared  by  reference  to  Fig.  9,  which  is  a 


12 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


7 


design  in  brown  calf  executed  for  Margaret  of  Valois,  27  years 
before  that  shown  in  Fig.  8.  The  tendency  throughout — sim¬ 
plicity  rather  than  complicity — is  well  illustrated. 

16.  Tendency  of  Early  Bookbinding-. — The  earliest 

efforts  to  enclose  books  in  suitable  and  appropriate  bindings 
tended  to  make  those  bindings  and  cover  designs  more 


Fig.  8 

characteristic  of  the  owner  of  the  book  than  of  the  book 
itself,  and  each  design  being  executed  but  once,  and  that  on 
the  bookcover  itself,  rendered  it  advisable  to  spare  no 
money  in  order  that  the  quality  of  the  cover  should  be 
suitable  with  the  value  of  the  work  it  protected.  At  the 


7 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


13 


present  day,  however,  we  have  an  entirely  different  propo¬ 
sition;  our  books  are  printed  in  editions  varying  from  one 
thousand  to  ten  thousand  copies,  and  some  limited  editions 
of  a  few  hundred  copies.  Our  cover  designs  must  therefore 
be  reduced  to  the  limitations  of  practical  printing  and  at  the 
same  time  be  suitable  and  attractive.  Some  of  these  covers 


Fig.  9 


are  printed  on  paper,  others  on  cloth,  others  on  parchment, 
and  a  few,  even  at  the  present  day,  on  leather.  In  most 
cases,  these  covers  are  backed  up  with  a  heavy  cardboard 
or  pressed-paper  filling,  and  the  material,  as  well  as  the 
design,  serves  not  to  protect  the  book,  but  to  ornament 
its  outside,  the  true  cover  being  the  binding  material  itself. 


14 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


§7 


17.  Limitations  of  Field  of  Design.— The  designing 
of  bookcovers  is  practically  unrestricted.  There  are  no 
considerations  of  proportion  concerning  its  dimensions  that 
need  in  any  way  affect  the  relative  details  of  the  work. 
The  design  may  be  executed  in  black  and  white,  in  gold,  or 


Fig. 10 


in  color,  the  only  considerations  necessary  being  the  expense 
of  production  and  the  handling  of  the  material  in  a  manner 
suitable  for  the  die  press. 

Certain  classes  of  bookcover  design  require  an  imitation, 
perhaps,  of  what  has  been  done  in  the  past,  such  as  the 
examples  shown;  other  classes  may  require  the  enclosure 


§7 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


15 


of  the  cover  in  a  border  with  corner  pieces,  in  which  case 
the  design  may  partake  of  the  character  shown  in  Fig.  48  of 
Practical  Design;  a  simple  design  in  appropriate'  historic 
letters  would  also  be  perfectly  proper  without  any  ornament 
whatsoever,  or,  possibly,  this  style  of  letter  with  a  slight 
interweaving  of  historic  ornament.  In  any  case,  the  designer 
is  left  almost  entirely  to  the  dictates  of  his  own  ideas  influ¬ 
enced  by  the  character  of  the  book  for  which  he  is  to  design, 
and  a  few  suggestions  is  all  that  will  be  necessary  in  order 
that  he  should  learn  to  apply  the  principles  of  design  to  this 
class  of  work. 

18.  In  Fig.  10  is  shown  a  binding  executed  for  Grolier, 
in  which  the  lightening  of  the  tool  effect  by  means  of  out¬ 
lining  is  very  apparent;  a  heavy  black  interlaced  pattern  is 
stamped  on  the  leather,  the  background  is  powdered,  and 
the  tools  outlined  in  gold  and  their  interior  powdered.  The 
Italian  motto,  “Io.  Grolierii  et  Amicorum,”  is  stamped  on 
nearly  all  of  Grolier’s  books  and,  in  reality,  represents  his 
book  plate. 

19.  Francis  I  Bookeovers. — During  the  reign  of 
Francis  I,  the  influence  of  French  taste  on  bookbinding  is 
seen  by  the  introduction  of 
powdered  devices  for  books. 

In  Fig.  11  is  shown  a  powder 
effect  within  the  dolphin  device 
and  the  fleur-de-lis  are  alter¬ 
nated  vertically  and  horizon¬ 
tally;  this  device  in  varied 
forms  was  very  popular  in  sub¬ 
sequent  periods,  as  may  be 
seen  in  Fig.  12,  which  was  a 
binding  for  Louis  XIII,  where¬ 
in  the  powder  effect  is  secured 
by  means  of  the  fleur-de-lis  and 
the  crowned  L.  Other  devices 
were  used  in  powder  effects  and  also  interwoven  in  arabesque 
design,  as  the  double  H  of  Henry  II,  the  interwoven  crescents 


4? 

4?  4? 

4? 


Fig.  11 


16 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


7 


of  Diana  of  Poitiers,  and  the  H  C,  and  L  A  for  Henry 
and  Catherine,  and  Louis  and  Anne  of  Austria,  in  their 
respective  reigns. 

20.  Le  Gascon  and  De  Tlion. — After  the  time  of 
Grolier,  whose  name  is  associated  with  all  French  bookbind¬ 
ing,  up  to  the  period  of  Charles  IX,  Le  Gascon  and  De  Thou 


Fig.  12 

appear  prominently  as  book  collectors  and  influencers  of 
bookcover  design.  Jacques  August  De  Thou  was  appointed 
to  the  custody  of  the  books  in  the  library  of  Henry  IV,  and 
it  is  to  him  that  we  are  indebted  for  the  preservation  of 
nearly  the  entire  library  of  Katherine  de  Medici. 


7 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


17 


21.  Styles  of  Henry  II  and  Henry  III. — It  was  after 
the  reign  of  Charles  IX  that  a  change  of  style  began  to  take 
place  in  French  bookbinding.  The  sides  of  a  book  were 
divided  into  small  compartments  by  geometrical  lines,  and 
though  at  first  these  compartments  were  devoid  of  ornament, 
during  the  reign  of  Henry  III  they  were  occasionally  filled 
with  a  stamp  representing  the  crucifixion.  Henry  II  fre¬ 
quently  bound  books  for  himself  on  which  he  stamped  the 
triple  crescent  of  the  coat  of  arms  of  Diana  of  Poitiers;  but  his 
son,  Henry  III,  took  life  more  sadly  and  decorated  his  covers 
with  religious  subjects  and  skulls  until  after  he  became  king, 
when  the  designs  became  more  cheerful,  as  shown  in  Fig.  7. 

22.  Style  of  Margaret  of  Valois. — Margaret  of  Valois, 
sister  of  Henry  III,  bound  her  books  with  a  powder  design 
composed  of  marguerites  or  roses  enclosed  in  ovals  of  con¬ 
ventional  leaf-like  forms.  She  also  endeavored  to  relieve 
the  restraint  caused  by  the  regular  framework  by  entirely 
filling  its  spaces  with  foliated  figures  and  a  multitude  of  vines 
that  were  extremely  graceful. 

23.  Fanfares. — The  style  of  binding  found  on  the 
books  of  De  Thou  is  termed  fanfares,  on  account  of  that 
word  appearing  prominently  in  the  title  of  one  of  the  earliest 
volumes  bound  in  this  style.  They  furnished  models  for 
other  books,  and  a  binder  known  as  Le  Gascon,  who  was 
probably  an  apprentice  of  the  binders  that  worked  for 
De  Thou,  introduced  them  into  his  designs  extensively.  In 
fact,  the  execution  of  this  style  of  binding  made  Le  Gascon 
the  most  prominent  person  in  bookbinding  after  the  days  of 
Grolier.  But  it  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  Grolier 
was  a  book  collector  and  not  a  binder  and  that  through  his 
efforts  a  style  was  developed  that  made  a  great  binder  like 
Le  Gascon  a  possibility. 

24.  In  Fig.  13  are  shown  the  tools  used  in  the  execution 
of  these  fanfare  covers,  all  of  which,  except  the  little 
branches,  are  azured  or  ruled  with  a  light  surface  tinting. 
Le  Gascon  developed  these  tools  into  still  lighter  forms,  by 
dotting  their  outline  so  as  to  make  it  as  delicate  as  possible. 


18 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


§7 


as  shown  in  Fig.  14.  He  developed  great  individuality,  but 
always  employed  the  stiff  framework  of  the  fanfare  on 
important  bindings.  His  style  gradually  developed,  how¬ 
ever,  and  the  reduction  of  the  Aldine  tools  to  the  dotted 
outline  is  characteristic  of  his  work  and  gives  a  remarkable 
brilliancy  of  effect  to  the  best  of  his  bindings. 

2o.  Style  of  Louis  XIV. — The  beginning  of  the  reign 
of  Louis  XIV,  when  Le  Gascon  was  binder  to  the  king, 
might  be  considered  the  period  of  the  highest  development 
of  French  literature.  In  bookbinding,  however,  it  was  liter- 

application  of  heavy  stamps  and 
gilding  rendered  the  bindings 
less  delicate  than  their  predeces¬ 
sors  and  in  certain  instances  posi¬ 
tively  vulgar  in  their  glitter.  The 
royal  arms  were  stamped  on  the 
covers  in  exaggerated  propor¬ 
tions,  and  heavy  borders  of  gold 
in  geometrical  patterns  were 
printed  around  the  edges.  These 
borders,  being  printed  from  re¬ 
volving  wheels,  were  absolutely 
uniform  and  lost  the  charm  that 
is  ever  characteristic  of  purely 
freehand  work.  In  some  examples,  where  the  courtiers 
followed  the  style  set  by  the  king,  a  border  varying 
in  width  from  1  to  3  inches  was  run  around  the  book  by 
means  of  one  of  these  wheels.  Sometimes  there  would  be 
two  or  three  narrow  borders,  one  within  the  other,  usually 
with  a  heavy  corner  piece  to  mark  the  return,  but  very  fre¬ 
quently  without  any  attempt  at  a  corner  piece  at  all,  allow¬ 
ing  the  corners  to  take  care  of  themselves  where  the  ruled 
work  stopped.  Sometimes  the  entire  side  of  the  book  would 
be  engraved  in  this  incongruous  style  of  repeating  ornament, 
making  the  bookbinder  a  mere  machine  without  an  opportu¬ 
nity  to  exercise  skill  or  taste  and  rendering  all  books  so  alike 
in  character  as  to  make  them  appear  commonplace. 


ally  a  golden  age,  as  the 


§7 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


19 


As  a  consequence,  we  find  no  great  bookbinder  in  France 
during  this  period,  and  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV,  grand  as  it 
may  have  been  politically  and  artistically,  developed  no  great 
book  lover  like  Grolier  or  bookbinder  like  Le  Gascon.  The 
tools  used  by  Le  Gascon  (then  called  “tools  of  the  l<th 
century”)  were  still  in  use  and  have  remained  in  use  to  the 
present  day,  and  form  the  stock  in  trade  of  the  best 
binders  at  the  beginning  of  the  20th  century. 

26.  Jansen  Style. — It  was  due  to  this  elabora¬ 
tion  and  overgilding  that  the  reaction  known  as  the 
Jansen  style  took  place.  This  consists  of  soberly 
bound  volumes  absolutely  devoid  of  gilding  on  the 
sides,  and  depending  for  their  beauty  on  the  char¬ 
acter  of  the  leather  itself.  These  books  were  bound 
better,  in  a  technical  sense,  than  the  earlier  ones, 
regardless  of  the  fact  that  as  works  of  art  the  covers 
of  the  earlier  books  are  more  interesting.  But  the 
binders  of  books  were  giving  more  attention  to 
keeping  the  leaves  intact  and  enclosing  them  in  a 
proper  protecting  cover  than  to  placing  the  leaves 
in  a  haphazard  manner  in  an  elaborately  decorated 
portfolio. 

27.  Mosaic  Binding. — Some  binders,  however, 
were  still  interested  enough  to  keep  up  the  traditions 
of  Le  Gascon,  and  shortly  after  the  death  of 
Louis  XIV  a  new  style  of  leather  binding  sprang 
into  existence  as  the  work  of  Padloup;  this  is  the 
mosaic  binding  and  is  certainly  the  most  elaborate 
and  remarkable  of  its  kind.  Its  chief  characteristic  is  that 
it  is  in  several  colors,  formed  by  different  leathers  inlaid 
within  one  another. 

The  bindings  in  Grolier’s  time,  too,  were  of  polychromic 
decoration,  but  the  colors  were  painted  on  them  with  somber 
tinted  enamels.  But  it  remained  for  Nicholas  Padloup ,  in 
the  reign  of  Louis  XV,  to  introduce  the  style  of  work  shown 
in  Fig.  15,  which  has  since  become  characteristic  of  him. 
In  this  example,  bound  for  the  Duchess  of  Orleans,  the 


Y\  •  /  • 

mi 


(AXi 

V>-'  •>; 

y 


-A 

(/  '•  \ 
y 

y 


y 


¥ 
Fig.  14 


20 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


7 


center  quarterfoils  were  red  on  a  ground  of  deep  olive  green 
and  the  rest  of  the  binding  was  a  brown  leather  sharply  out¬ 
lined  in  bright  gold. 

28.  The  Deromes. — Contemporary  with  the  bindings  of 
Padloup  were  those  of  the  Deromes  (a  number  of  brothers, 
the  most  prominent  of  whom  was  known  as  the  younger 


Fig. 15 


Derome) .  The  characteristic  binding  of  Derome  is  entirely 
different  from  that  of  Padloup,  and  as  all  the  mosaics  of  this 
period  were  attributed  to  Padloup,  Derome  gets  credit  for 
all  bindings  wherein  a  tool  is  used  representing  a  bird  with 
outstretched  wings,  thus  giving  a  lightness  and  vivacity  to 


/ 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


21 


the  design.  Derome’s  covers  usually  consisted  of  a  lacelike 
foliated  border  suggestive  of  wrought-iron  work,  as  in 
Fig.  16,  from  which  he  undoubtedly  borrowed  ideas,  as  the 
1/th  century  smithery  work  had  reached  a  high  scale  in  art 


in  France.  These  openwork  borders  were  heavily  tooled, 
and  the  motives  borrowed  from  the  ironwork  of  the  period 
were  capable  of  immense  variation,  so  that  of  Derome’s 
bindings  it  is  not  likely  that  there  are  two  exactly  alike. 
The  tools  used  by  Derome  are  shown  in  Fig.  17. 

29.  18th  Century  Bookbinding.— In  the  18th  century, 
the  designs  became  heavy.  Padloup  and  Derome  had  no 
successors  of  importance,  and  the  few  new  tools  possessed 
nothing  of  importance  or  interest;  they  serve  only  as  a  key  to 
the  period  of  certain  bindings,  if  the  student  chooses  to  so 
use  them  at  the  present  day.  The  development  of  the  book- 
cover  from  its  earliest  condition  to  its  present  form  should 
be  thoroughly  understood  if  one  desires  to  design  book- 
covers  intelligently  in  the  present  period. 

30.  Knowledge  of  Styles  Necessary  to  the 
Designer.  —  In  bookbinding,  as  in  everything  else,  one 
style  was  evolved  from  another.  The  Aldine  press  in  Italy, 
being  the  pioneer  printer  of  ornament,  produced  the  style 
that  was  taken  by  Grolier  to  France  and  developed  there 
into  a  French  style.  Then  followed  the  powdered  styles 
and  the  brilliant  fancies  of  Le  Gascon,  which  in  turn  gave 


22 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


7 


place  to  the  mosaics  of  Padloup  and  the  vigorous  borders 
of  Derome. 

Throughout  all,  the  key  to  the  period  of  each  binding  is 
the  style  of  the  tool  used;  and  a  knowledge  of  the  charac¬ 
teristics  of  these  tools,  whether  used  in  the  present  day  for 
an  imitation  of  antique  bindings  or  for  the  study  of  antique 
bindings  to  locate  their  periods,  is  essen¬ 
tially  important. 

31.  Comparison  of  Bindings  of 
Different  Countries. — The  art  of  book¬ 
binding  was  developed  to  a  higher  point  of 
excellence  in  France  than  in  any  other 
country.  True,  it  originated  in  Italy,  but 
Italy  was  soon  outstripped  by  France  in  style 
and  ingenuity,  while  Germany  attempted  to 
do  no  more  than  paste  an  ornamental  book 
plate  inside  of  a  volume,  acknowledging 
thus  her  lack  of  skill  to  adorn  the  volume 
externally.  To  Germany,  therefore,  we  owe 
the  invention  of  the  book  plate. 

Only  one  great  binder  appeared  in  England 
during  this  period  and  even  he  cannot  be 
compared  with  his  contemporaries  in  France. 


MODERN  BOOKBINDING 


32.  Character  of  Modern  Binding. 
It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  binding 
of  books  in  individual  copies,  the  covers 
of  which  are  ornamented  with  particular 
devices,  has  been  confined  entirely  to  an¬ 
tiquity.  It  is  quite  customary  at  the  present  day  to  bind 
books  with  covers  to  suit  their  owner  or  match  the  general 
bindings  of  his  library.  In  fact,  nearly  all  French  and 
German  books  and  a  large  number  of  those  published  in 
England  are  bound  in  paper  only,  so  that  the  purchaser  may 
have  them  placed  in  covers  that  satisfy  his  taste. 


Fig. 17 


7 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


23 


The  designing  of  oookcovers,  then,  even  at  the  present 
day,  may  require  a  theme  that  can  be  neither  executed  by 
hand  on  leather  work  or  duplicated  on  the  press.  As 
the  former  is  a  higher  branch  of  the  art  and  is  more  closely 
allied  with  the  practice  of  the  past,  it  will  be  considered  first, 
but  let  us  look  first  into  the  general  process  of  binding  a 
book,  as  the  designer  of  the  cover  must  be  familiar  with 
the  details  through  which  the  volume  passes  before  it 
reaches  his  hands  for  completion. 

33.  Process  of  Binding. — In  bookbinding  there  are 
two  separate  and  distinct  operations,  usually  termed  forward¬ 
ing  and  finishing.  Forwarding  consists  in  the  assembling 
of  the  leaves  and  the  preparation  of  the  book  for  its  cover,  the 
putting  on  of  that  cover  and  the  completion  of  the  book  ready 
for  its  exterior  decoration.  Finishing  consists  in  the  dec¬ 
oration  of  the  cover  and  of  the  back  of  the  book;  forwarding, 
therefore,  is  a  mechanical  process;  finishing,  an  artistic  one. 

It  has  been  expressed  as  the  opinion  of  one  of  the  most 
prominent  binders  of  the  day,  that  a  book  neatly  and  cleanly 
covered  is  in  a  very  satisfactory  condition  without  any  finish¬ 
ing  or  decorating,  and  that  many  people  are  in  accord  with 
this  idea  is  evinced  by  the  fact  that  so  many  books  are 
bound  in  plain  leather  without  any  decoration  on  their 
exteriors  except  a  device  or  title  by  which  they  can  be 
recognized.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  Jansen  books, 
described  in  Art.  26,  consisted  simply  of  a  well  forwarded 
book  with  a  minimum  amount  of  gilding  on  its  cover,  and 
in  some  cases  none  at  all. 

34.  Securing  the  Sheets. — In  modern  bookbinding, 
the  first  operation  of  the  binder  is  to  fold  all  the  printed 
sheets  into  a  section  and  to  gather  these  sections  together  in 
regular  order  so  as  to  form  the  volume.  After  this,  the 
sections  are  taken  one  at  a  time,  placed  in  a  frame  to  hold 
them,  and  then  sewed,  with  a  continuous  thread,  backwards 
and  forwards  through  their  backs,  thus  uniting  them  and  at 
the  same  time  securing  them  to  upright  strings  that  are 
fastened  in  the  sewing  frame  across  the  backs  of  the  sections, 


24  BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING  §7 

as  shown  at  a,  Fig.  18.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  after  the  com¬ 
pletion  of  this  process,  the  book  is  bound,”  and  all  that 
is  subsequently  done  to  it  is  for  the  purpose  of  protecting 
this  binding.  The  decoration  of  the  latter  part  of  the  work, 
to  make  it  beautiful  as  well  as  useful,  brings  the  element 
of  design  into  bookbinding. 

The  book  is  now  ready  for  the  forwarder,  who  completes  the 
work  of  binding  to  the  pasting  on  of  the  cover.  The  back  of 
the  book  b  is  made  by  him  and  rounded  to  shape;  the  mill- 
boards  e  that  are  to  form  the  covers  are  carefully  squared 
and  secured  by  leather  or  cloth  bands  to  the  sheets  that  are 
sewed  in. 


The  sides  of  the  volume  are  thus  protected  by  millboards, 
usually  termed  “boards”  for  brevity,  which  are  themselves 
protected,  as  shown  at  /,  by  a  covering  of  leather,  vellum, 
or  silk,  as  of  old,  or  of  linen  or  paper,  in  most  modern  work. 
The  edges  of  the  volume  are  protected  by  the  projection  of 
the  boards,  while  the  upper  edge  is  cut  smooth,  and  sometimes 
gilded  to  prevent  damage  from  the  accumulation  of  dust. 

35.  Classification  of  Bindings. — This  protecting 
cover  over  the  boards,  and  the  extent  to  which  it  is  sub¬ 
sequently  decorated,  determines  the  character  of  binding 
under  which  the  book  is  classified.  In  modern  binding  there 


§7 


BOOKCOVER-  DESIGNING 


25 


arc  four  classes  cloth  binding ,  half  binding ,  whole  binding , 
and  extra  binding.  In  cloth  binding,  the  cover  is  made 
separately  from  the  book  and  encloses  it  after  the  entire 
book  is  sewed.  In  half  binding,  the  cover  is  made  for 
each  individual  book  as  before,  but  the  boards  are  not 
entirely  covered  with  the  leather,  silk,  or  other  material  that 
protects  it,  but  the  forepart  is  covered  with  something  else; 
books  bound  in  this  manner  are  usually  termed  half  morocco 
or  half  calf,  according  to  the  material.  In  wliole  binding, 
the  boards  are  entirely  covered  with  the  leather  or  other 
material  of  the  binding  and  are  commercially  termed  full 
morocco  or  full  calf.  In  extra  binding,  the  whole  surface, 
or  such  a  portion  of  it  as  is  desirable,  is  decorated  in  gold 
or  enamel  color.  Where  a  book  is  to  be  extra  bound,  the 
processes  tending  to  the  assemblage  of  its  parts  are  gone 
into  somewhat  more  in  detail.  After  the  sections  are  folded, 
the  end  leaves  g'  at  the  front  and  back  of  the  volume  are 
added  to  protect  the  most  exposed  pages.  Then  the  sections 
are  sewed,  as  before,  and  the  volume  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  forwarder,  who  makes  and  shapes  the  back  of  the 
book,  atta_-.es  the  boards,  and  laces  them  to  the  ends  of 
the  strings  a  to  which  the  forms  have  been  sewed.  After  the 
edges  have  been  colored  or  gilded,  which  is  usually  done  at 
this  stage,  the  head-band  h  is  sewed  in  at  the  head  and  tail, 
and  the  back  k  lined  with  cloth  or  leather  to  keep  the  head- 
band  in  place  and  strengthen  the  back. 

36.  The  Covering  Material. — If  leather  is  now  applied 
to  cover  the  book,  its  edges  must  be  carefully  shaved  off  in 
order  to  make  no  ridge  at  l  where  the  edges  fold  over  on 
the  inside;  and  after  being  pasted  securely  to  the  cover,  the 
depression  caused  by  the  overlap  is  filled  with  an  evenly  cut 
piece  of  paper  so  that  it  may  be  perfectly  smooth  to  receive 
the  first  or  last  end  paper  g' ,  which  is  cut  to  shape  and 
pasted  down,  leaving  only  the  leather  borders  of  the  boards 
uncovered.  This  completes  the  forwarding  of  the  volume; 
the  finishing  on  the  leather  consists  of  a  decoration,  in  gold, 
with  the  tools  that  have  been  described. 


26 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


§7 


37.  Decorating  the  Cover.— The  method  of  operating 
the  tools  and  applying  the  decoration  is  very  simple.  The 
pattern,  having  been  drawn  on  paper,  is  marked  on  the 
leather  after  it  has  been  washed  with  vinegar  and  water. 
The  white  of  an  egg,  which  has  been  well  beaten  up  and 
allowed  to  stand,  is  carefully  penciled  over  the  pattern,  after 
which  it  is  generally  wiped  with  oil.  Gold  leaf  is  now 
applied  with  a  pad  of  cotton  wool,  and  the  pattern,  plainly 
visible  through  the  gold  leaf,  is  pressed  into  the  leather  with 
the  tools  heated  to  a  temperature  of  a  little  over  200°;  the 
waste  gold  is  then  removed  by  rubbing  with  an  oiled  rag. 

38.  Character  of  the  Cover  Design.— The  design 
must  be  one  that  can  be  executed  conveniently  with  the 
means  at  the  finisher’s  command;  that  is,  by  means  of  the 
tools  with  which  he  does  the  embossing.  It  is  an  unfor¬ 
tunate  fact  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  20th  century  nothing 
has  been  developed  toward  a  new  style  of  bookbinding 
characteristic  of  the  present  age.  Grolier  lived  in  the  16th 
century  and  Le  Gascon  in  the  17th  century,  and  even  in  the 
18th  century  we  have  the  mosaic  borders  of  Padloup  and 
the  heavy  lacework  borders  of  Derome  borrowed  from  or 
inspired  by  wrought  iron,  and  yet  the  most  beautiful  bind¬ 
ings  that  we  find  executed  in  the  19th  century  are  simply 
imitations  of  those  that  preceded  them.  Even  in  France, 
where  bookbinding  was  developed  and  has  flourished  to 
such  an  extent,  we  have  nothing  worthy  of  consideration 
during  the  past  century,  for  the  French  Revolution  and  the 
long  succeeding  wars  not  only  prevented  further  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  art,  but  even  caused  the  traditions  to  disappear. 

The  foremost  bookbinder  of  the  19th  century  was  Trautz, 
a  German;  his  work  caused  the  French  to  regain  some  of 
their  former  enterprise.  The  chief  beauty  of  the  work 
of  Trautz  is  its  conscientiousness;  he  always  did  his  best, 
and  being  a  student  of  ancient  methods,  revived  the  tools  of 
Le  Gascon,  Derome,  and  Padloup. 

39.  Modern  Designs. — -In  individual  bookbinding  of 
the  present  day,  it  is  very  hard  to  direct  the  student  on  what 


7 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


27 


lines  to  follow.  Many  binders  are  content  to  follow  identic¬ 
ally  the  styles  of  Grolier,  Padloup,  and  Derome,  but  this  is 
altogether  wrong,  as  they  are  out  of  sympathy  with  modern 
advancement.  They  may  be  more  perfect  in  design  than 
anything  that  has  recently  been  created,  but  to  persist  in 
using  them  is  as  unreasonable  as  to  confine  our  designs  of 
art  and  architecture  to  the  early  Greek,  for  a  man’s  residence 
today  is  a  thing  he  requires  for  his  modern  wants,  however 
imperfect  it  may  be,  and  is  far  better  than  the  style  of  the  early 
Greek,  which  is  unsuited  to  his  purpose,  though  beautiful. 

40.  Propriety  of  Design. — It  should  always  be  borne 
in  mind  that  there  should  be  some  propriety  of  scheme  in 
the  design  of  a  binding,  and  though  it  is  not  necessary  that 
a  volume  on  botany  should  be  decorated  with  floral  forms, 
it  is  proper  that  there  should  be  some  association  between 
the  title,  the  binding,  and  the  interior  of  the  book.  One 
expensive  volume  on  the  subject  of  glass  making  was  once 
bound  in  covers  that  contained  glass  panels  enameled  in 
color;  this  is  carrying  the  subject  of  harmony  between  title 
and  cover  to  an  extreme  that  is  ridiculous,  as  glass  is 
naturally  highly  inappropriate  for  a  bookcover. 

41.  Revival  of  tlie  Jansen  Style. — In  a  majority  of 
books  bound,  the  Jansen  idea  of  morocco  seems  to  prevail, 
and  few  persons  except  those  that  are  the  fortunate  pos¬ 
sessors  of  an  elaborate  library  care  for  individual  designs. 
The  demand  is  growing,  however,  and  the  propriety  of  mate¬ 
rials  should  always  be  considered.  American  binders  have 
taken  the  lead,  to  a  certain  extent,  in  giving  a  variety  of 
leather  to  bookbinding  and  other  purposes,  but  they  have 
not  given  altogether  proper  thought  to  the  propriety  and 
application  of  the  leather  to  the  book  bound.  The  binding 
of  prayer  books  in  snake  skins  is  certainly  not  a  very  appro¬ 
priate  combination,  although  this  material  would  be  very 
suitable  to  the  weird  uncanny  tales  of  Edgar  Allen  Poe. 
The  use  of  alligator,  kangaroo,  dog,  cat,  rabbit,  fox,  sheep, 
bear,  and  such  skins  gives  a  variety  from  among  which  will 
be  found  some  one  more  appropriate  than  all  others,  as 


28 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


7 


there  are  over  a  hundred  kinds  of  leather  that  at  present 
are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  pocketbooks,  bags,  card 
cases,  etc.,  and  all  may  be  used  in  the  binding  of  books. 

42.  Materials  for  Covers. — Bookcovers  need  not  neces¬ 
sarily  be  confined  to  leathers  either.  Fragments  of  tapestry, 
old  silk,  brocades,  velvets,  etc.  will  enter  with  great  pro¬ 
priety  in  the  designs  of  certain  bindings.  A  treatise  on  the 
upholsteries  and  decorations  of  certain  periods  of  art  may 
be  suggestively  bound  in  some  of  the  prevailing  brocades 
that  were  used  for  upholstery  work.  The  history  of  tapes¬ 
try  and  tapestry  weaving  suggests  some  ideas  for  the  cover 
highly  appropriate  for  this  work,  and  the  consideration  of 
the  history  and  development  of  lace  making  not  only  sug¬ 
gests  a  material  that  might  appear  in  the  cover  design,  but 
also  suggests  a  pattern  that  could  be  traced  out  on  a  leather 
cover  and  tooled  as  in  the  old  methods.  A  treatise  on  book 
plates  or  bookbinding  should  certainly  be  bound  in  a  mate¬ 
rial  that  is  in  harmony  with  this  subject,  and  a  design  after 
the  pattern  of  Le  Gascon,  or  the  earlier  practice,  as  seen  in 
results  from  the  Aldine  press,  would  certainly  be  suitable 
to  the  occasion  if  not  carried  too  severely  on  the  lines  of 
the  original.  In  the  same  manner,  the  mosaic  bindings  of 
Padloup  and  the  heavy  wrought-iron  suggestions  of  Derome 
may  each  be  pressed  into  service  to  be  appropriated  on 
certain  occasions  and  for  certain  purposes  and  used  intelli¬ 
gently  in  their  places. 

43.  Cheaper  Bindings.— Leather  is  very  little  used 
for  modern  bookbinding,  and  consequently  the  designers  of 
bookcovers  must,  as  a  rule,  take  into  consideration  the 
adaptability  of  another  material.  Stamped  cloth  is  the  more 
common  material  for  this  purpose  nowadays,  and  the  old 
leather-work  designs  have  been  superseded  by  free  and  tra¬ 
ditional  ornament  in  some  way  associated  with  the  subject 
of  the  volume.  There  is  practically  no  limitation  in  the 
execution  of  the  designs,  inasmuch  as  machinery  has  been 
so  improved  that  a  pattern  may  be  stamped  on  the  side  and 
back  of  a  bookcover  in  as  many  colors  as  the  designer  can 


§7 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


29 


use  to  advantage  or  the  publisher  is  willing  to  pay  for.  A 
modern  bindery  with  steam  power  is  capable  of  binding  the 
entire  edition  of  any  one  work — amounting  even  to  several 
thousand  copies — in  the  course  of  24  hours. 

44.  Hand  and  Machine  Binding. — Here,  then,  is 
one  strong  and  essential  difference  between  hand  bookbind¬ 
ing  and  machine  bookbinding.  In  the  former  the  book  is 
bound  and  then  decorated  by  hand,  while  in  the  latter  the 
cloth  or  other  material  that  is  to  form  the  cover  is  made  and 
decorated  apart  from  the  book  itself  and  afterwards  fastened 
in  place.  Hand  work  is  a  slow  process,  and  machine  work 
is  a  rapid  one;  in  the  former  the  designer  really  executes 
the  design  on  the  cover,  while  in  the  latter  he  may  never  see 
the  cover,  and  simply  designs  the  dies  to  be  used. 

45.  Novelty  of  Design. — In  the  attempt  to  secure 
novelty  of  design,  a  great  effort  has  been  made  to  find  special 
cloths  for  covering  materials  for  special  books,  and  canvas, 
burlap,  calico,  and  silk  have  each  been  used  to  advantage, 
under  some  circumstances.  The  special  fitness  of  the  asso¬ 
ciation  of  certain  goods,  or  of  the  pattern  of  them,  has  been 
used  to  advantage  for  certain  bookbindings.  A  book  entitled 
“Gowns  and  Frocks  in  Colonial  Days”  was  very  appropri¬ 
ately  bound  in  the  figured  calico  characteristic  of  that  period, 
while  another  book  devoted  to  the  interests  of  yachts  and 
yachting  was  bound  in  ordinary  sail  canvas,  on  which  was 
imprinted  a  line  of  signal  flags  bearing  the  devices  of  the 
different  yachts  of  prominence  described  in  its  pages.  Here, 
at  once,  are  suggested  two  styles  of  treatment — one,  wherein 
the  binding  material  itself  is  suggestive  of  the  propriety  of 
its  use,  and  the  other,  where  this  suggestion  is  added  or 
increased  by  the  printing  on  the  material  of  certain  char¬ 
acteristic  devices,  as  the  signal  flags  above  referred  to. 

46.  Paper  Covers. — Paper-covered  books  are  of  two 
kinds — one  where  the  edition  is  valuable  and  the  paper  cover 
is  simply  put  on  to  protect  the  volume  until  its  owner  shall 
decide  to  bind  it  in  leather  or  other  permanent  material, 
while  other  paper-covered  books  are  usually  so  bound  for 


30 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


§7 


cheapness,  and  particularly  books  of  the  fiction  class  that  are 
usually  read  and  tossed  aside  after  one  reading.  From  a 
commercial  standpoint,  however,  the  covers  of  these  latter 
are  of  as  much  importance  to  the  designer  as  the  most 
elaborately  tooled  leather  cover  designed  in  the  style  of  the 
16th  century. 

47.  Magazine  Covers.- — Paper  covers,  in  the  case  of  a 
magazine,  must  be  so  characteristic  that  the  magazine  is 
readily  recognized  by  its  cover;  in  the  case  of  a  novel,  it 
must  be  striking  in  order  to  catch  the  eye  of  the  purchaser 
as  it  lies  on  a  stand;  in  some  cases  it  is  highly  important 
that  it  should  be  symbolic,  especially  where  the  subject 
treated  is  a  religious  or  political  one,  in  order  that  the  per¬ 
son  interested  may,  from  a  glance  at  the  design  of  the  cover, 
form  some  idea  of  the  material  within.  In  each  case,  it  lies 
entirely  with  the  designer  to  decide  and  settle  the  material, 
color,  design,  and  treatment  in  each  individual  case,  and  on 
the  judicious  decision  of  any  one  of  these  points  frequently 
depends  the  success  or  failure  of  the  entire  design. 

The  styles  of  design  that  publishers  take  to  can  only  be 
learned  by  experience,  but  in  cost  of  production  there  is 
little  difference  between  one  design  and  another,  except 
when  color  is  used.  A  complicated  design  in  black  and 
white  will  cost  no  more  to  print  than  a  simple  one,  but  if  one 
or  more  colors  are  introduced,  the  entire  edition  will  have 
to  go  on  the  press  a  second  time,  and  perhaps  a  third,  while 
a  die  will  have  to  be  cut  for  each  printing,  thereby  increasing; 
the  expense  accordingly. 


§7 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


31 


MAKING  THE  BOOKCOVER  CARTOONS 

48.  Requirements  of  Bookeover  Designs. — Modern 
bookcover  designs  do  not  follow  closely  the  styles  of  the 
ancient  historical  bookcovers,  owing  to  the  great  change  in 
the  methods  of  manufacture.  It  is  necessary,  however,  that 
the  designer  should  be  familiar  with  the  historical  styles  in 
order  that  he  may  introduce  a  historical  character  into  his 
modern  work  when  the  circumstances  require  it.  In  submit¬ 
ting  a  bookcover  design  to  a  publisher,  there  are  three  things 
that  will  determine  its  practical  value:  First,  its  originality; 
second,  the  expense  of  its  reproduction;  third,  its  technical 
perfection. 

If  the  design  is  not  original  and  attractive,  it  has  no  value 
whatever,  no  matter  how  cheap  its  reproduction  may  be  or 
how  perfect  the  drawing.  If  the  design  be  excellent  in  char¬ 
acter,  it  may  be  so  expensive  in  reproduction  that  the  excel¬ 
lence  of  the  design  is  entirely  counteracted,  for  there  are 
limits  in  every  case  to  the  expenditure  that  can  be  afforded 
in  the  reproduction  of  even  the  most  attractive  covers. 
A  design  may  be  original,  simple,  and  inexpensive  to  repro¬ 
duce,  yet  utterly  worthless,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  designer 
has  not  properly  considered  the  technical  limitations  that  are 
concerned  in  its  reproduction. 

Occasionally  an  author  may  select  a  design,  and,  being 
unfamiliar  with  the  difficulties  to  be  encountered  in  its  execu¬ 
tion  on  the  finished  book,  may  overlook  some  of  the  fore¬ 
going  details,  but  his  publisher  is  sure  to  discourage  its  use; 
and  though  the  design  may  have  been  ordered  and  paid  for. 
its  impracticability  will  prevent  the  author  from  again  employ¬ 
ing  the  same  designer.  Such  a  design,  therefore,  does  the 
designer  more  harm  than  good. 

49.  Knowledge  of  Reproductive  Processes  Neces¬ 
sary. — While  the  originality  of  a  design  and  the  skill  of  its 


32 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


§7 


execution  are  of  great  importance  in  assuring  its  acceptance, 
it  is  necessary  that  the  drawing  be  technically  correct  in  every 
detail  and  that  it  can  be  used  by  the  publisher  without  the 
slightest  alteration  to  suit  it  to  commercial  requirements. 
The  prospective  bookcover  designer  must  therefore  give 
careful  attention  to  the  commercial  requirements  and  limita¬ 
tions  in  the  reproduction  of  modern  bookcover  designs,  and 
he  must  be  practically  familiar  with  every  detail  of  the  proc¬ 
esses  that  a  design  passes  through,  from  the  time  the  cartoon 
leaves  his  hands  until  its  counterpart  appears  on  the  finished 
book. 


CLASSES  OF  BOOKCOYERS 

50.  Bookcovers,  in  general,  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes:  the  tooled  bookcover  and  the  printed  bookcover.  The 
tooled  bookcover  is  entirely  hand  work,  the  printed  book- 
cover  entirely  machine  work,  the  former  being  the  ancient  and 
historical  method,  the  latter  the  modern  commercial  method. 

Tooled  bookcovers  are  rarely  used  at  the  present  day 
except  for  rare  editions  of  historical  works,  or  for  single 
books  that  are  bound  for  individuals.  Designs  for  the  imi¬ 
tation  of  tooled  covers  to  be  executed  by  a  printing  process 
are  made  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  other  printed 
designs  hereinafter  described,  but  designs  for  actual  tooling 
are  usually  made  by  the  craftsman  himself  and  executed  by 
him  on  the  finished  leather  binding. 


TOOLED  BOOKCOVERS 

51.  Modern  Tools  and  Tooling.— The  tools  used  in 
modern  bookbinding  vary  in  form  and  design  from  those 
used  in  historical  binding,  as  shown  by  comparing  the 
impressions  in  Fig.  19  with  Figs.  1,  11,  and  14,  but  are 
often  combined  with  the  historical  designs  to  fulfil  some 
modern  requirement.  Each  tool  consists  of  a  brass  form, 
or  stamp,  in  the  end  of  a  wooden  handle,  that  is  heated  and 
pressed  into  the  leather  to  form  a  detail  of  the  design. 
The  flowing  lines  connecting  separate  details  are  executed 


34 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


§7 


with  curves  similar  to  those  shown  at  (d) ,  varying  in  form 
so  that  the  lines  can  be  carefully  followed  and  the  design 
worked  out  in  detail. 

The  forwarded  and  finished  book,  complete  in  its  leather 
cover,  is  turned  over  to  the  craftsman  for  tooling.  He 
sketches  his  design  in  pencil  on  thin  paper,  working  up  all 
the  curves  for  the  entire  cover  very  accurately,  and  when 
completed  mounts  it  on  the  book  by  means  of  a  little  paste 
at  the  corners.  With  his  tools  heated  to  a  tem¬ 
perature  somewhat  over  200°  he  then  presses  these 
pencil  outlines  through  the  paper  into  the  leather, 
using  different  tools  in  order  to  form  the  outlines 
and  especially  made  devices,  if  necessary,  to  carry 
out  certain  details  of  ornamentation. 

In  Fig.  20  is  shown  a  modern  tooled  book  back 
executed  with  the  tools  shown  at  ( b ),  (/z),  (z) , 
and  (/),  in  Fig.  19.  It  will  be  observed  that  com¬ 
paratively  few  tools  were  required  to  do  this 
work.  Long  flowing  lines  can  be  made  by  a 
combination  of  gouges  ( d )  or  curved  tools,  and  the 
devices  can  be  repeated  frequently  by  several 
stamps  containing  such  ornaments  as  are  required. 

After  the  design  is  executed,  the  paper  is 
removed  from  the  leather,  and  if  the  work  is  to 
be  further  ornamented  with  gold  leaf,  further 
tooling  will  be  necessary. 

Where  the  plain  design  is  pressed  into  the 
leather  it  is  called  blind  tooling;  where  gilded,  it 
is  usually  referred  to  as  tooled  in  gold.  Where 
gold  is  to  be  applied  to  the  cover,  a  size  com¬ 
posed  of  albumen  or  other  fluid  material  is  applied  over 
the  entire  design  with  a  fine  camel’s-hair  brush,  and  when 
dry,  small  pieces  of  gold  leaf  are  laid  over  the  depressions 
caused  by  the  blind  tooling,  and  with  the  tool  reheated 
are  forced  into  the  depressions  already  formed,  to  which 
they  adhere,  owing  to  the  presence  of  the  size.  When  the 
entire  cover  is  gilded,  the  surplus  gold  leaf  is  wiped  from 
the  surface  with  a  piece  of  oily  cotton,  and  the  leather  cover 


Fig.  20 


7 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


35 


tooled  in  gold  is  complete.  On  the  back  of  the  book  the  title 
is  impressed  in  a  similar  manner  by  means  of  brass  letters 
set  in  forms  with  wooden  handles  similar  to  those  on  the 
tools.  Lines  emphasizing  the  structural  character  of  the 
bands  along  the  binding  are  impressed  with  straight-line 
tools.  Small  ornaments  in  the  panels  formed  on  the  back 
by  these  bands  are  stamped  with  single  tools  or  occasionally 
with  combinations  of  several  tools,  but  the  character  of  a 
properly  tooled  book  is  entirely  that  of  the  craftsman  that 
executes  it. 

In  commercial  work,  an  entire  cover  is  occasionally  stamped 
in  gold  as  an  imitation  of  tooling  and  the  back  alone  hand- 
tooled,  and  in  some  instances  the  entire  cover,  including  the 
back,  is  stamped  at  one  time,  in  imitation  of  tooling.  In 
such  commercial  work  as  this  the  cover  is  made  and  stamped 
before  it  is  applied  to  the  book,  whereas  in  the  true  hand- 
tooled  work  the  book  is  bound  first  and  the  tooling  executed 
afterwards. 

While  the  designer  for  this  class  of  work  has  to  exercise 
his  ingenuity  to  make  his  work  entirely  original  and  in 
accordance  with  modern  ideas,  yet  a  thorough  familiarity 
with  historic  styles  of  book  tooling  will  be  of  the  greatest 
value. 


PRINTED  BOOKCOYBES 

52.  Various  Technical  Stamping  and  Printing 
Processes.— Printed  bookcovers  offer  the  greatest 
opportunity  for  designers,  as  it  is  commercial  work  that  pre¬ 
sents  the  greatest  field  for  this  class  of  craftsmen.  Printed 
bookcovers  are  executed  on  paper,  parchment,  cloth,  canvas, 
leather,  and  sometimes  even  on  wood.  These  covers  are 
printed  or  stamped  with  a  special  press  using  brass  dies,  zinc 
plates,  or  electrotypes,  according  to  the  character  and  quality 
of  the  work  required.  The  designer  must  know  which  of 
these  methods  is  to  be  used  when  he  prepares  his  design, 
as  its  commercial  practicability  depends  almost  entirely  on 
this  knowledge.  Where  brass  stamps  are  used,  the  design 
is  cut  into  thick  brass  plates  in  high  relief  and  stamped 


36 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


§7 


directly  on  to  the  cloth  or  leather  on  the  die  press.  As  the 
cutting  of  these  plates  is  accomplished  largely  by  hand, 
their  cost  is  great. 

It  is  occasionally  necessary,  for  small  editions,  to  use  zinc 
plates,  made  by  a  photographic  process,  to  stamp  the  design. 


Fig.  21 


Zinc  being  softer  than  brass,  it  is  less  durable,  and  soon 
becomes  worn,  so  that  the  printed  design  loses  sharpness 
at  the  edges.  Therefore,  the  designer  must  embody  in  his 
design  such  a  character  of  line  and  mass  as  will  not  become 
seriously  impaired  when  these  edges  become  indistinct. 


§7 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


37 


A-  SVMMEID  IN- 
RVRAL- ENGLAN) 
BY  •  ROY  •  RAND 


Fig.  22 


38 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


§7 


The  wear  is  not  so  great  on  the  brass  dies  in  high  relief,  and 
can  be  rectified  somewhat  by  grinding  down  the  die  after 
its  surface  shows  the  effect  of  frequent  compression;  but  the 
relief  in  the  zinc  plates  is  so  slight  that  a  new  etching  is 
necessary  as  soon  as  the  wear  becomes  serious. 

For  this  reason,  printed  bookcovers  must  never  be 
executed  in  fine  or  delicate  lines  with  the  intention  of  show¬ 
ing  fine  gradations  of  shade  or  softness  of  detail.  Bold  con¬ 
ventional  forms  with  large  masses  properly  distributed  give 
the  best  effect  and  produce  the  most  durable  dies.  A  design 
like  that  shown  in  Fig.  21  might  be  very  satisfactory  for  a 
conventional  illustration  within  the  book,  but  should  be 
reduced  to  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  22  before  it  will  be 
acceptable  for  a  cover  design. 

Where  a  design  is  executed  in  more  than  one  color,  a 
separate  die  is  necessary  for  each  color,  and  a  separate  print¬ 
ing  for  each  die;  therefore,  the  cost  of  reproduction  is  multi¬ 
plied  accordingly.  The  fewer  colors  used  to  produce  a  good 
design,  other  things  being  equal,  the  more  attractive  will  be 
the  design  to  the  purchaser,  on  account  of  the  cheapness  of 
its  reproduction.  _ 

PREPARING  THE  DRAWINGS 

53.  Evolution  of  a  Bookcover  Design. — The  car¬ 
toon,  or  original  drawing,  for  a  bookcover  design  is 
submitted  to  the  prospective  purchaser  as  a  finished  repre¬ 
sentation  of  the  design  itself  after  it  has  been  applied  to  the 
book,  whatever  may  be  its  cover  material.  If  the  volume 
be  an  octavo,  6  inches  by  9  inches — such  as  the  I.  C.  S. 
Reference  Library — a  piece  of  paper,  canvas,  or  leather  is 
cut  to  exactly  this  size  and  mounted  on  heavy  cardboard 
considerably  darker  in  color  than  the  cover  itself.  This 
represents  the  plain  bookcover  on  which  the  design  is  to  be 
executed  in  pen  and  ink,  black  and  white  wash,  water  color, 
distemper,  or  crayon,  according  to  the  medium  best  suited 
to  represent  the  finished  cover.  The  back  of  the  book  (not 
the  reverse  cover,  but  the  back  on  which  the  title  is  printed) 
is  laid  alongside  the  cover  design  in  the  form  of  a  long  strip 


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40 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


§7 


of  paper,  cloth,  or  leather,  the  exact  height  of  the  book  and 
of  a  width  corresponding  to  its  thickness,  on  which  is  to  be 
shown  the  character  and  distribution  of  the  design  on  this 
portion.  If  the  design  on  the  reverse  cover  of  the  book  is 
different  from  that  on  the  front  cover,  it  also  is  laid  out 
along  the  side  of  the  book  back,  as  shown  in  Fig.  23. 

With  this  material  cut  to  the  required  size  and  representing 
the  blank  form  to  be  decorated,  the  designer  makes  a  prelim¬ 
inary  sketch,  full  size,  of  the  cartoon,  simply  feeling  for 
graceful  lines,  and  roughly  plotting  in  the  masses.  This 
roughly  plotted  scheme  simply  suggests  the  character  of  the 
lines  and  the  proportioning  of  spaces,  as  shown  in  Fig.  24, 
where  the  ornament  is  indicated  by  a  few  bold  lines,  the 
lettering  simply  indicated  in  a  blocked  space,  and  the  general 
distribution  of  the  work  laid  out  in  pencil  on  ordinary  brown 
paper  or  ti'acing  paper,  in  order  to  get  a  pleasing  proportion 
of  the  design  and  background.  This  can  then  be  worked  up 
into  general  detail  with  color  effects  suggested  in  broad 
even  tones,  as  shown  in  Fig.  25,  but  with  no  attempt  toward 
the  completion  of  the  detail.  Having  worked  this  up  to  the 
required  degree,  a  piece  of  tracing  paper  may  be  laid  over 
the  rough  drawing,  and  the  principal  features  of  the  design 
traced  from  the  rough  sketch  and  afterwards  carefully  and 
accurately  worked  up,  as  shown  in  the  outline  pencil  drawing, 
Fig.  26.  If  the  design  of  the  cover  be  symmetrical,  a  center 
line  can  be  drawn  from  top  to  bottom  and  only  one-half  of 
the  design  need  be  traced  on  the  tracing  paper,  as  this  can 
afterwards  be  transferred  to  the  other  half,  forming  a  com¬ 
pleted  symmetry.  This  tracing  should  be  transferred  to  the 
blank  cover  shown  in  Fig.  23  by  means  of  transfer  carbon 
paper.  This  can  be  obtained  in  several  colors,  and  a  tint 
should  be  selected  that  will  just  show  dimly  the  outlines 
when  transferred  on  the  finished  fabric,  so  that  there  will  be 
no  danger  of  these  outlines  becoming  obtrusive  in  the 
finished  cartoon.  If  the  fabric  be  light  in  color,  such  as 
white  paper  or  light  cloth,  the  tracing  itself  may  be  used  as 
a  transfer  paper  if  the  pencil  with  which  it  is  executed  has 
been  sufficiently  soft. 


7 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


41 


It  is  best  usually  to  make  the  letters  of  the  titles  on  a 
separate  paper  and  transfer  them  separately  unless  the 
designer  is  expert  in  this  line  of  work,  and  can  safely  work 
them  out  on  his  original  sketch.  Having  the  outline  and 
lettering  transferred,  the  design  should  be  painted  in  bold 
flat  tints.  Where  cloth,  leather,  or  heavy  paper  is  the 
material  of  the  binding,  the  colors  should  be  Chinese 
white,  distemper,  oil  color,  or  gold,  according  to  the  cir¬ 
cumstances.  The  edges  of  the  ornament  must  be  clean 
cut,  sharp,  and  in  every  respect  a  representation  of  what 
will  appear  on  the  finished  die,  and  when  the  entire  cartoon 
is  complete  it  should  be  carefully  protected  by  a  sheet  of 
thin  paper  pasted  at  one  edge  that  will  preserve  it  from 
injury.  Fig.  27  shows  the  completed  cartoon,  which  is  an 
exact  representation  of  the  finished  bookcover. 

A  cover  of  this  character  when  purchased  by  the  publisher 
is  turned  over  to  the  die  cutters;  they  select  each  color  and 
cut  the  die  therefor  without  separate  drawings,  but  it  is 
always  advisable  to  submit  with  the  design  a  table  of 
colors  consisting  simply  of  a  series  of  small  squares  about 
2  inch,  each  representing  an  individual  color  used  in  the 
design,  so  that  there  can  be  no  mistake  as  to  the  number  of 
dies  required. 


DESIGNS  FOR  ZINC  ETCHINGS 

54.  When  zinc  etchings  are  to  be  made  for  printing 
on  cloth  or  paper  covers,  the  original  design  submitted  to 
the  publisher  is  executed  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as 
where  brass  dies  are  the  means  of  reproduction,  but  the 
design  must  be  carried  further  and  a  separate  drawing  made 
for  each  zinc  block  that  is  to  produce  a  color.  After  the  car¬ 
toon  is  complete,  the  designer  must  prepare  on  white  bristol 
board  a  silhouette  of  each  part  of  the  design  that  is  to  be 
printed  in  a  separate  color.  These  silhouettes  should  be 
made  about  two  or  three  times  as  large  as  the  reproduced 
cover  demands.  Thus,  a  book  6  inches  by  9  inches  will 
require  a  drawing  12  inches  by  18  inches,  or  larger,  in 
order  to  get  the  best  results. 


42 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


§7 


To  insure  accuracy  in  these  plates,  a  large  sized  drawing 
should  be  made  of  the  entire  design,  and  the  section  repre¬ 
senting  each  color  should  be  carefully  traced,  transferred  to 
the  bristol-board  sheet,  outlined,  and  inked  with  black  draw¬ 
ing  ink.  In  Fig.  28  is  shown  a  bookcover  in  three  colors 
made  with  three  impressions  from  zinc  plates.  The  drawing 
for  each  of  these  colors  is  shown  in  Figs.  29,  30,  and  31, 
Fig.  29  having  been  used  for  the  red,  Fig.  30  for  the  buff, 
and  Fig.  31  for  the  black. 

Occasionally  where  gold  is  to  be  used  in  a  design,  zinc 
plates  are  prepared  for  it  also,  but  as  a  gold  application 
requires  an  exceedingly  heavy  pressure  it  is  customary  to 
make  electrotypes  of  the  plates  so  that  the  duplicates  can  be 
obtained  when  the  ones  in  use  become  worn. 


PAPER  COVERS 

55.  Periodicals,  magazines,  catalogs,  and  certain  cheaper 
forms  of  books  are  bound  in  paper  covers,  the  printing 
of  which  is  usually  done  from  zinc  plates  made  from 
pen-and-ink  drawings  or  block  drawings,  as  above  described. 
Paper  covers  can  also  be  executed  in  three-color  half 
tone,  which  requires  simply  a  photographic  reproduction 
on  three  plates  based  on  the  color  theory,  and — with  a  com¬ 
bination  of  red,  yellow,  and  blue  inks — will  effect  sufficient 
variation  in  color  to  depict  any  multiple  color  design. 
Designs  of  this  character  require  accurate  printing  so  that 
the  parts  represented  by  two  or  more  colors  register  exactly. 
The  designer  in  executing  this  class  of  work  should  bear  in 
mind  that  as  the  selection  of  color  values  is  of  a  mechanical 
character,  the  human  eye  cannot  make  a  proper  analysis  of 
the  color  combinations  without  the  aid  of  chemistry.  He 
should  execute  his  designs  with  the  simplest  combinations 
of  color  possible.  Tones  that  can  be  effected  by  a  combina¬ 
tion  of  two  colors  should  be  used  as  much  as  possible,  and 
attempts  at  great  brilliancy  or  naturalism  should  be  avoided, 
giving  preference  to  the  conventional  forms  and  the  flatter 
tones,  to  insure  good  reproduction. 


EXHIBITION 


TWO  HOUR  SKETCH  CLUB 

Fro.  28 


1 4'iHi; 


§7 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


43 


r> 


POSTER 

EXHIBITION 


Fig.  29 


44 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


I 


j&tiiiimgw 


#  /  r :  •.:  f ; : ;;( .•  :> 


■.V-V.v'Vi 


> 


1 8538 


mm  u 

7 1  ^ 

[gig | 

V 

Fio.  25 


14596 


r  IG 


14:96 


CATAl^OG 


TWO  HOUR  SKETCH  CLUB 


Fig.  31 


46 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


§7 


Covers  executed  in  black  and  white  are  drawn  one  and 
one-half  to  two  times  the  size  of  the  finished  product,  in 
precisely  the  same  manner  as  illustrations  are  made  for  the 
text.  They  may  include  any  variety  of  conventional  or 
naturalistic  rendering  that  may  be  desired,  as  the  reproduc¬ 
tion  is  absolute  and  there  is  no  uncertainty  as  to  what  the 
result  will  be  when  the  plate  comes  from  the  photoengraver. 

Bookcovers  designed  in  half  tone  may  be  made  from  wash 
drawings  but  should  be  preferably  executed  in  distemper, 
composed  of  Chinese  white  mixed  with  ivory  black  to  give 
it  depth  of  color,  to  which  a  sufficient  amount  of  Indian  red 
has  been  added  to  give  it  a  decided  reddish  tone.  This  is  of 
vast  importance,  as  in  the  process  of  photoengraving  the 
reddish  value  in  the  drawing  produces  greater  contrast  than 
grade  values  that  tend  toward  blue;  a  mixture  of  some  inks 
with  Chinese  white  produces  a  grade  value  of  a  bluish  tone 
that  looks  perfectly  well  in  the  original  drawing  but  repro¬ 
duces  with  little  contrast.  In  order  to  avoid  such  discrep¬ 
ancies,  it  is  best  that  all  distemper  color  applied  to  the 
shaded  drawings  possess  a  decidedly  red  tone,  as  there  can 
be  no  question  as  to  how  it  will  appear  in  the  finished  tint. 


REQUISITES  IN  DOING  SUCCESSFUL  BOOKCOVER 

DESIGNING 

56.  The  commercial  success  of  the  bookcover  designer 
depends  on  his  own  individual  characteristics  and  the  impres¬ 
sion  he  makes  on  his  prospective  purchaser,  quite  as  much  as 
on  his  skill  as  a  designer  and  his  talent  as  a  draftsman.  There 
is  a  certain  element  of  egotism  in  every  individual,  and 
the  designer  must  appeal  to  that  element  when  he  submits 
his  cartoon  to  the  publisher.  For  this  reason  it  is  advisable 
for  the  designer  to  come  in  personal  contact  with  the 
person  in  the  publishing  house  that  makes  the  decisions  as 
to  what  designs  shall  be  used  and  what  shall  not  be  used  in 
the  ornamentation  of  certain  books.  This  acquaintanceship 
will  soon  apprise  the  designer  of  the  character  of  the  work  that 
will  appeal  to  this  publisher  and  he  can  work  up  his  schemes 


7 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


47 


accordingly.  All  designs  must  be  executed  with  mathemat¬ 
ical  accuracy,  and  must  be  neatly  and  carefully  mounted  so  as 
to  show  them  off  to  the  best  advantage,  as  a  prospective 
purchaser  will  consider  the  design  attractive  to  the  public  in 
the  same  proportion  as  it  is  attractive  to  himself. 

In  making  a  design  for  any  especial  title,  the  designer 
must  not  lose  sight,  in  his  endeavor  to  fit  the  design  to  the 
title,  of  the  individuality  and  attractiveness  of  the  bookcover. 
The  attractiveness  of  the  cover  may  lead  the  reading  public 
to  study  the  title  after  they  have  been  attracted  by  the 
design.  A  glance  into  a  bookstore  window  where  many 
books  are  displayed  for  sale  will  reveal  the  fact  that  there 
are  many  designs  there  that  attract  attention  over  and  above 
other  designs,  not  that  they  are  especially  beautiful,  but  are 
certainly  more  prominent.  If,  in  addition  to  this,  the  design 
is  in  harmony  with  the  title  and  suggests  interesting  subjects 
between  the  covers,  it  is  likely  to  assist  in  the  sale  of  the  book, 
and  probably  appealed  to  the  publisher  when  he  selected  it. 

The  novice  in  designing  should  analyze  every  bookcover 
and  bookcover  design  that  he  sees,  not  with  a  view  to  copying 
the  idea,  but  to  the  end  of  learning  what  was  in  the  designer’s 
mind  when  he  conceived  it;  also,  what  there  was  to  it  that 
induced  the  publisher  to  use  it.  This  analysis  should  not  only 
be  made  from  an  artistic  standpoint,  but  also  from  the  prac¬ 
tical  side  of  the  printer,  die  cutter,  photoengraver,  and  others 
concerned  in  its  reproduction.  An  analytical  study  of  this 
character  will  also  train  the  inexperienced  designer  to 
detect  the  defects  in  printing  books  from  old  dies,  and  the 
deterioration  in  design  due  to  worn  edges  on  the  plates 
and  blocks  will  be  readily  observable. 


BOOK  PLATES 

57.  A  book  plate  is  a  little  device  or  label  executed  for 
the  individual  owning  the  books  in  which  it  is  pasted  as  an 
indication  of  such  ownership.  The  design  for  a  book  plate 
is  usually  personal  in  character  and  is  especially  suited  to  the 
person  for  whom  it  is  executed. 


48 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


§7 


The  book-plate  idea  is  an  old  custom,  but  such  a  one  that 
with  the  increasing  publication  of  books  during  the  present 
century  it  has  become  very  popular.  Its  origin  is  somewhat 
uncertain,  but,  as  suggested  hereinbefore,  it  was  probably  due 
to  the  practice  of  royal  personages  who  stamped  a  coat  of  arms 
on  everything  they  possessed  and  thus  gave  a  distinctive 
character  to  their  particular  libraries.  In  foreign  countries, 
a  coat  of  arms  usually  forms  a  part  of  the  device,  and  the 


Fig.  32 


book-plate  design  is  frequently  transmitted  from  generation 
to  generation,  thus  playing  a  part  in  family  history.  In 
Italy  and  France,  where  books  were  bound  in  a  most  costly 
manner,  it  was  customary  to  stamp  this  coat  of  arms  on  the 
outside  cover,  but  in  Germany,  where  the  binding  was 
simpler  and  more  substantial,  there  were  no  outside  marks 
of  distinction  and  the  label  was  placed  within  the  cover,  and 
so  in  the  early  part  of  the  15th  century  we  find  that  book 


§7 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


49 


plates  had  their  origin,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  first 
designer  of  book  plates  was  Albert  Durer.  A  more  modern 
reason  for  the  existence  of  a  particular  class  of  book  plates 
is  found  in  their  use  as  a  suggestive  hint  to  borrowers  that 
the  book  belongs  to  the  individual  named. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  concerning  these  early  book 
plates  that  some  of  them  took  on  a  most  serious  character, 
while  others  took  suggestive  designs  or  quotations  in  a 
lighter  vein.  The  first  mission  of  the  book  plate  is  clearly 
to  express  ownership,  and  therefore  the  modern  design 
should  be  sufficiently  characteristic  to  remind  one  at  once  to 
whom  the  book  belongs. 


EX  LIBRIS 


LPVIS  ALLErt  •  0  SBOR/1E 


Fig.  33 


Much  criticism  has  been  expressed  against  the  custom  of 
introducing  the  owner’s  name  in  a  rebus  or  sort  of  puzzle, 
as  in  Fig.  38,  or  of  expressing  it  in  a  foreign  language,  or  of 
making  quotations  relative  to  the  owner’s  library  that  are 
unintelligible  to  English-speaking  persons.  This,  however,, 
is  largely  a  matter  of  taste.  One’s  book  plate  is  his  own 
property  and  may  be  designed  to  suit  the  individual;  so  long 
as  the  design  is  appropriate  it  matters  not  what  may  be  its 
historic  style  or  language.  However,  where  a  book  plate  is 
simple  in  character  and  contains  no  characteristic  feature  to 
make  it  distinctive,  the  owner’s  name  should  be  conspicuous 


50 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


7 


and  plain.  After  this  consideration  comes  the  question  of 
beauty  or  interest,  which  is  of  equal  importance  both  to  the 
owner  and  the  designer. 

58.  General  Types  of  Book  Plates. — Generally  speak¬ 
ing,  designs  can  be  divided  into  four  general  types:  the 
heraldic ,  as  in  Fig.  32,  consisting  of  crests,  designs  in  armor, 
and  traditional  family  devices;  the  allegorical ,  which  rep¬ 
resents  conventionally  some  symbol  or 
device  associated  with  the  individual  or 
his  library,  Fig.  33;  the  conventional ,  which 
introduces  a  purely  decorative  idea  whose 
sole  purpose  is  to  render  the  design 
unique  and  beautiful,  Fig.  34;  and  the 
pictorial ,  Fig.  35,  which  includes  designs 
representing  definite  ideas  associated  with 
the  owner  or  his  library,  comic  situations, 
or  crude  repiesentations.  The  propriety 
of  each  class  of  design  to  the  individual 
must  be  judged  by  the  designer,  unless 
direct  instructions  for  the  character  of 
the  design  are  given  by  the  owner,  and 
one  must  bear  in  mind  that  these  devices, 
being  strictly  personal,  must  be  thor¬ 
oughly  appropriate  to  the  books  for  which 
they  are  designed. 

The  character  of  these  books  is  not 
limited  to  their  literary  standpoint,  as 
the  same  books  in  the  libraries  of  dif¬ 
ferent  individuals  will  assume,  from  the 
book-plate  standpoint,  an  entirely  different  character.  A 
rare  book  of  religious  character  will  naturally  possess  a 
different  character  in  the  library  of  the  religious  person 
than  it  would  in  the  library  of  the  book  collector  who 
made  a  specialty  of  collecting  rare  volumes;  to  one  it 
is  a  book  of  solemn  and  sacred  importance,  to  the  other 
it  is  a  curiosity  forming  a  part  of  a  collection  of  curios, 
and  in  designing  a  book  plate  for  either  person  due 


Fig.  34 


Fig.  35 


Fig. 36 


52 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


7 


consideration  would  have  to  be  given  to  the  individual 
rather  than  to  the  library. 


59.  Book-plate  designs  may  vary  extremely  in  character 
according  to  the  books  in  which  they  are  placed  and  the 
persons  to  whom  they  belong.  In  foreign  countries  where 
family  crests,  coats  of  arms,  and  other  insignia  are  consid¬ 
ered  of  importance,  it  is  frequently  customary  to  embody 


Fig.  37 


these  in  a  design.  Other  book  collectors  seem  to  prefer  a 
simple  device  based  on  some  personal  characteristic,  and 
occasionally  a  simple  illustration  based  on  some  grotesque 
idea.  A  few  illustrations  of  these  will  serve  better  to 
indicate  the  variety  of  ideas  that  contribute  to  these  marks 
of  possession. 

In  Fig.  36  is  shown  a  reproduction  of  an  engraved  book 
plate  based  on  a  heraldic  design  of  the  16th  century,  while  in 


§7 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


53 


Fig.  37  is  an  18th  century  design  showing  the  influence  of 
the  rococo  style  of  ornament  for  the  decoration  of  this 
period.  A  more  modern  English  plate  is  that  of  Walter 
Crane,  designed  by  himself,  which  consists  of  a  pun  on  his 
name,  shown  in  Fig.  38,  while  that  of  Alma  Tadema,  the 
artist,  represents  an  easel  in  the  form  of  his  initials,  Fig.  39. 


Fig.  40  was  designed  for  Rider  Haggard,  the  author,  and 
consists  of  Egyptian  hieroglyphs  descriptive  of  his  works. 
In  Fig.  35  is  shown  a  book  plate,  the  characteristic  feature 
of  which  is  a  detail  taken  from  one  of  Scott’s  novels, 
the  scene  being  associated  with  Kenilworth.  In  Fig.  33  is  a 
form  of  design  based  on  an  Egyptian  idea  and  represents  an 


54 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


7 


Egyptian  Diety  holding  separate  Superstition  and  Wisdom, 
while  Fig.  34  is  a  simple  floral  design  intended  purely  for 


Fir..  39 

ornamental  purposes  and  suggesting  no  allegorical  idea 
whatsoever.  The  book  plate  shown  in  Fig.  41  was  designed 

for  a  lady  about  to  take  up  her  resi¬ 
dence  in  Japan,  and  was  intended  for  a 
label  for  only  such  books  as  she  might 
take  with  her  or  bring  back,  the  asso¬ 
ciation  being  entirely  with  this  event. 
Fig.  34  shows  a  design  based  on  a 
conventionalized  floral  form  borrowed 
from  Fig.  10,  Plant  Analysis.  Fig.  42 
shows  an  adaptation  of  the  conven¬ 
tionalized  dandelion  arranged  to  fill  the 
space  and  render  ornamental  what 
would  otherwise  be  a  simple  label.  These  designs  are 


Fig. 40 


§7 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


55 


introduced  here  to  show  the  application  of  ideas  derived 
from  natural  forms  to  simple  design  purposes. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that,  while  the  book  plate  is  personal 
in  character,  it  does  not  necessarily  partake  of  any  distinct 
individuality  that  applies  exclusively  to  one  individual. 
While  a  similarity  of  book  plates  may  be  accidental,  it  does 
not  necessarily  follow  that  one  is  more  unsuitable  to  its 


FRANCES 

mmm 

WARNER 


Fig. 41 


Fig. 42 


purpose  than  another,  simply  because  in  the  mind  of  the 
observer  its  direct  relation  to  the  owner  cannot  be  deter¬ 
mined.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  the  owner  himself  is  the 
best  judge  of  the  suitability  of  the  book  plate,  and  while  the 
artist  may  find  it  necessary  to  submit  a  number  of  sketches 
in  order  to  get  the  owner’s  ideas,  the  latter  is  always  to  be 
the  judge  of  what  is  to  be  preferred. 


56 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


7 


STYLE  OF  RENDERING 

60.  Like  every  other  class  of  design,  book  plates  should 
be  rendered  in  the  medium  and  method  best  suited  to  each 
individual  case.  The  majority  of  them  are  probably  etchings 
on  zinc  from  pen-and-ink  drawings  printed  in  plain  black 
on  a  white  label.  Exceptions  to  this  rule  may  arise  by  the 
introduction  of  two  or  more  colors  (as  was  the  case  in 
Figs.  34  and  42  where  the  conventional  leaf  forms  were 
printed  in  green),  and  in  certain  individual  instances  where  a 
three-color  half  tone  might  be  used,  or  even  the  lithograph,  to 
represent  the  design  in  many  colors.  The  method  of  drawing 
for  zinc  work  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  for  general 
illustrating  or  for  paper  bookcovers.  Certain  conditions 
may  demand  that  the  design  should  be  conventionally  ren¬ 
dered,  but  no  attempt  at  pictorial  detail  or  local  shading, 
similar  to  Figs.  21  and  35,  should  be  made,  but  a  pictorial 
rendering  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  22  is  perfectly  proper  when 
circumstances  demand  it. 

Simplicity  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  as  the  most 
desirable  characteristic  in  the  rendering,  and  the  simplest 
method  of  rendering  a  chosen  design  is  always  the  best. 
Designs  that  are  to  be  reproduced  in  half  tone  should,  in 
nearly  all  cases,  be  severely  conventional,  as  the  soft  effects 
obtained  by  this  method  of  reproduction  are  likely  to 
render  a  pictorial  effect  so  soft  that  it  is  not  well  suited 
to  so  utilitarian  a  purpose  as  a  label. 


LETTERING 

61.  In  all  classes  of  bookcover,  book-plate,  and  poster 
designs  too  much  care  cannot  be  given  to  the  subject  of 
lettering.  A  mistaken  idea  prevails  in  the  minds  of  many 
artists  that  so  long  as  the  general  design  is  well  conceived 
and  executed,  the  lettering  is  of  secondary  importance,  and 
other  still  less  experienced  people  incline  to  the  belief  that 
better  lettering  can  be  supplied  by  the  printer  than  can  be 
drawn  by  the  artist.  All  this  is  decidedly  wrong;  in  many 


§7 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


57 


respects  the  lettering  is  the  most  important  part  of  the 
design — at  least  if  it  is  so  considered  there  will  be  little 
danger  of  the  artist  falling  short  in  this  particular.  It  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  essential  feature  in  the  book- 
cover,  book  plate,  or  poster  is  usually  the  purpose  for  which 
it  is  made  and  the  subject  that  it  represents,  and  this  is 
expressed  in  the  printed  matter  impressed  on  it.  This,  if 
for  no  other  reason,  should  settle  the  question  of  the  inadvis¬ 
ability  of  careless  lettering.  The  arranging,  proportioning, 
and  spacing  of  letters  in  a  design  should  be  as  much  the 
subject  of  study  as  the  distribution  of  any  other  ornament, 
and  after  it  is  generally  sketched  in  it  should  be  carefully 
outlined  and  worked  up  to  the  last  detail. 

Letters  that  appear  in  the  finished  print  to  be  carelessly 
or  sketchily  rendered  are  usually  the  result  of  greater  care 
than  those  that  are  exact  and  uniform.  Original  ideas  in 
letter  forms  require  particular  attention  in  order  that  their 
parts  may  be  balanced  well,  and  in  many  cases  it  is  far 
better  to  exaggerate  the  characteristics  of  a  letter  in  the 
direction  that  it  ought  to  go  than  it  is  to  fall  short  in  the 
slightest  degree  in  the  proper  proportioning.  Take  ordinary 
printed  letters,  for  example  such  letters  as  B,  E,  and  S  in 
the  capitals,  and  while  they  appear  to  be  exactly  uniform  at 
top  and  bottom,  it  may  be  easily  discerned  by  turning  the 
print  upside  down  that  the  lower  portion  of  the  letter  is 
considerably  larger  than  the  top,  and  by  an  experiment  in 
drawing  one  readily  learns  that  to  proportion  one  of  these 
letters  exactly  symmetrical  so  as  to  make  its  top  and  bottom 
equal  in  size  gives  it  a  top-heavy  appearance  that  is  very 
unsatisfactory.  This  defect  is  not  so  prominent  in  the 
lower-case  letters,  but  a  common  error  here  is  to  make  the 
stroke  of  the  d  and  t  quite  as  high  as  those  of  the  other 
long  letters,  thereby  throwing  them  out  of  proportion.  It  is 
well,  however,  in  all  cases  not  to  make  the  lower-case  letters 
perfectly  circular  or  elliptical,  but  rather  to  give  the  round 
ones  an  oval  shape  with  the  larger  portion  at  the  bottom. 
In  lower-case  letters  like  the  French  Roman  and  the  Medie¬ 
val  Roman  alphabets  this  peculiarity  is  very  marked.  The 


58 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


§7 


lower  portion  of  the  c,  e,  o,  etc.  is  considerably  wider  than 
the  upper  portion,  and  in  the  letter  s  this  particular  is 
strongly  emphasized. 

It  is  found  desirable  in  many  cases  to  give  a  careless  or 
artistic  effect  to  the  rendering  of  the  letter  so  as  to  detract 
from  it  the  appearance  of  having  been  rendered  mechanically. 
The  novice  is  inclined  to  the  belief  that  this  appearance  is 
given  to  it  by  actual  carelessness  in  the  drawing,  whereas, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  more  skill  is  required  in  the  rendering  of 
this  style  of  letter  than  of  one  that  is  perfectly  clean  cut  in  its 
outline.  For  bookcover  work  it  is  better  that  all  rendering 
should  be  freehand,  including  both  the  lettering  and  the 
ornament,  except  in  such  instances  where  a  decidedly  stiff 
and  mechanical  appearance  is  intended,  and  to  render  this 
effect  most  forcibly  each  letter  should  be  carefully  outlined 
with  a  pen  and  the  solid  portions  filled  in  with  a  coarser  pen 
or  a  fine  brush.  This  method  of  outlining  serves  the  double 
purpose  of  producing  a  clean  even  edge  to  the  finished 
letter  and  of  enabling  the  designer  to  preserve  a  uniformity 
of  width  in  the  stems  and  strokes  that  can  be  better,  judged 
when  these  details  are  in  outline  than  when  they  are 
drawn  solid. 

While  the  designer  may  exercise  the  greatest  liberty  in 
the  choice,  style,  and  formation  of  letters,  in  order  to  design 
original  lettering  he  should  study  the  characteristics  of  the 
simple  alphabets.  A  thorough  knowledge  of  the  proportions 
of  the  light  antique  Egyptian  and  the  Medieval  and  light 
French  Roman  should  enable  him  to  design  other  letters  in 
accordance  with  the  proper  proportions  without  in  any  way 
indicating  that  he  copied  some  certain  style. 

62.  A  standard  style  may  be  varied  somewhat  without  in 
any  way  destroying  its  individuality.  For  instance,  the  light 
antique  Egyptian  may  be  extended  or  contracted  so  that  the 
same  height  of  letter  may  fill  a  longer  or  shorter  space. 
This  will  change  the  slant  of  the  sides  of  the  A,  W,  and  V, 
but  in  the  letters  H  and  M  the  extension  may  be  effected  by 
inclining  the  sides  somewhat,  thereby  preventing  a  squatty 


§7 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


59 


appearance  to  the  letter.  In  the  letter  N,  the  left  stroke 
only  should  be  inclined  in  order  to  preserve  the  appearance 
of  stability.  The  details  of  this  alphabet  may  also  be  some¬ 
what  exaggerated;  the  horizontal  strokes  of  the  A,  E,  F, 
and  H  may  be  raised  or  lowered  considerably  where  it  is 
desired  to  severely  conventionalize  the  letter,  and  the  upper 
loop  of  the  B,  P,  and  R  may  be  materially  diminished  in 
height.  The  same  liberties  may  be  taken  with  the  light 
French  Roman  but  with  less  freedom,  while  the  Medieval 
Roman  is  best  kept  in  its  standard  form  without  alteration. 

The  Gothic  alphabet  offers  the  greatest  opportunities  for 
variation  of  any,  while  at  the  same  time  it  is  one  of  the  most 
severely  conventional.  The  left  stroke  of  the  A,  terminating 
as  it  does  in  a  large  disk,  may  be  carried  still  lower  and 
under  the  right  stroke  with  perfect  propriety.  In  a  similar 
manner,  the  curved  stroke  of  the  H  may  be  swept  under  the 
vertical  stroke,  and  the  J  may  be  constructed  with  a  vertical 
stem  similar  to  the  I.  The  W  is  often  designed  as  an 
inverted  M,  and  the  U  as  a  symmetrical  letter,  both  of  its 
sides  similar  to  the  curved  stroke  in  the  W.  The  T  is  fre¬ 
quently  drawn  with  a  vertical  stroke  and  horizontal  cross¬ 
piece  similar  to  the  upper  part  of  the  letter  F,  while  the  Y 
may  partake  of  the  same  characteristics  as  the  U  and  V 
when  it  occurs  in  the  same  lettering. 

Whatever  is  done  in  the  way  of  lettering  should  be  done 
with  the  greatest  accuracy  and  care,  as  no  design,  no  matter 
how  well  executed,  can  be  accepted  by  a  careful  purchaser 
if  the  lettering  is  not  as  carefully  thought  out  as  the  rest  of 
the  motive. 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


BRUSSELS  AND  WILTON  CARPETS 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  When  one  has  acquired  the  theoretical  idea  of  the 
application  of  natural  forms  to  design,  it  is  necessary  that 
he  should  understand  the  mechanical  limitations  of  certain 
forms  of  machinery  or  methods  of  production  in  order  to  fit 
himself  to  design  for  some  specific  purpose.  The  prepara¬ 
tion  of  a  design  for  a  carpet  or  other  woven  fabric  differs  in 
no  way  from  the  preparation  of  a  design  for  a  piece  of 
silverware,  except  so  far  as  the  mechanical  limitations  of 
the  methods  of  reproduction  are  concerned.  Both  may  be 
based  on  the  same  natural  type  severely  conventionalized 
to  suit  the  material  and  the  machinery  that  are  to  produce 
the  result,  and  the  more  intimate  the  designer  is  with  the 
limitations  of  these  methods  of  production,  the  better  and 
more  economical  can  he  design  for  some  specific  purpose. 

Many  of  the  most  practical  carpet  designers  learn  their 
craft  while  helpers  in  the  designing  room  of  a  factory,  and 
although  this  is  an  admirable  way  of  acquiring  the  practical 
experience  necessary  to  a  good  design,  it  has  the  disadvan¬ 
tage  of  being  a  tedious  process,  as  manufacturers  are  usually 
slow  in  recognizing  the  artistic  ability  of  employes  occupy¬ 
ing  subordinate  positions.  A  man  with  original  ideas  and 
ability  as  a  draftsman  and  designer  can  train  himself,  in  a 
few  months,  to  occupy  the  position  of  a  first-class  carpet 
designer  by  studying  mechanical  limitations  of  a  certain 
kind  of  manufacture.  The  helper  in  the  design  room 

For  notice  of  copyright,  see  page  immediately  following  the  title  page 

28 


2 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


8 


learns  only  the  practical  side  and  is  kept  copying  the  ideas 
of  others,  so  that  his  own  individuality  is  never  expressed. 
He  soon  becomes  a  mere  machine,  and  therefore  is  in  the 
worst  possible  condition  to  become  a  successful  designer. 

The  head  of  such  a  designing  department  usually  is  a 
graduate  of  a  technical  school,  and  he  is  apt  to  keep  to 
himself  much  of  the  theory  of  design  and  at  the  same  time 
make  little  effort  to  absorb  the  practical  side  from  his  helper. 

The  public  designer,  however,  must  understand  both  the 
theoretical  and  practical  side.  He  must  thoroughly  under¬ 
stand  his  craft,  possess  inventive  genius,  and  thoroughly 
understand  the  practical  and  economical  sides  of  mill  work 
in  the  production  of  his  fabrics. 

2.  Wilton  and  Brussels  carpets  are  so  closely  related 
in  stiucture  that  they  may  be  considered  as  one,  the  designs 
being  made  for  each  in  exactly  the  same  manner.  They  are 
manufactured  in  several  grades  and  called  by  various  names, 
but  in  the  mills  and  in  the  wholesale  trade  are  usually  desig¬ 
nated  as  five-frame ,  four-frame ,  or  three-frame ,  depending  on 
their  coloring.  These  terms  must  be  thoroughly  under¬ 
stood,  as  they  not  only  govern  the  color  combinations  in 
the  carpet,  but  also,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  quality. 

A  careful  examination  of  the  back  of  Brussels  or  Wilton 
carpet  will  show  that  it  is  composed  of  a  harsh  fabric  of 
linen,  cotton,  or  other  inferior  material,  the  smaller  threads 
intersecting  the  heavier  ones  at  right  angles  and  forming 
little  squares  exactly  corresponding  to  those  on  the  design 
paper.  The  threads  running  across  the  carpet  are  the  weft; 
each  is  inserted  in  its  place  by  1  pick  on  the  loom  or  one 
ti  ip  of  the  shuttle  across  the  warp.  The  heavier  threads  run¬ 
ning  lengthwise  of  the  carpet  are  the  warp  tfneads  or  the  ends. 
Three  of  these  are  within  each  small  square  visible  on  the 
back  of  the  carpet;  two,  called  chain  warps ,  form  the  thin 
longitudinal  lines  of  the  square,  while  the  third  and  thicker 
one,  called  the  stuffing  warp ,  fills  the  mesh  left  by  the 
section  of  the  chain  warps  and  the  weft.  This  stuffing  warp 
helps  to  give  solidity  and  stability  to  the  fabric.  Besides 


§8 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


3 


these  warps,  there  are  observable  bits  of  colored  worsted 
yarn  that  have  been  crowded  through  the  backing.  These 
worsted  yarns  are  run  lengthwise  of  the  ends  and  are  there¬ 
fore  warp  threads,  and  it  is  their  loops  that  are  brought  to 
the  surface  of  the  carpet  to  produce  the  pattern. 

3.  Rules. — In  weaving  body  Brussels,  a  plain  wire  rule 
is  inserted  under  the  pile  warp  at  each  pick,  which,  when 
pulled  out,  leaves  the  loops  as  woven.  In  Wilton  carpet, 
however,  the  end  of  the  wire  is  sharpened  so  as  to  form 
a  projecting  knife  blade,  which,  when  drawn  out  of  the  loop, 
cuts  their  tops  and  leaves  a  soft  velvet-like  effect. 

The  loop  of  the  Wilton  carpet  is  larger,  or  higher,  than 
that  of  the  Brussels;  therefore,  the  Wilton  carpet  contains 
a  larger  percentage  of  worsted  and  is  proportionately  more 
expensive.  But  the  cut  loop  and  the  greater  percentage  of 
worsted  required  by  the  difference  in  length  of  the  loop  are 
the  only  differences  between  Brussels  and  Wilton  carpet. 

All  the  warp  threads  are  fed  into  the  loom  from  the  back, 
the  chain  loops  are  wound  on  one  large  reel,  called  a  beam , 
and  the  stuffing  warp  wound  on  another  reel  or  beam.  The 
colored  warps  forming  the  face  of  the  goods,  usually  termed 
the  pile  waip,  are  wound  on  separate  bobbins  or  spools. 

4.  Design  Paper. — Designs  for  all  woven  fabrics  are 
rendered  on  a  squared  paper,  such  as  shown  in  Fig.  1,  which 
is  a  full  size  section  of  a  piece  of  design  paper  used  for  the 
designing  of  Brussels  carpet. 

The  weaver,  in  reproducing  his  design  on  the  loom,  must 
have  before  him  a  working  drawing,  or  diagram,  that  can 
be  easily  translated  on  his  loom,  by  means  of  a  pattern¬ 
controlling  mechanism,  into  a  design  in  carpet.  Every  line  of 
squares  lengthwise  of  the  paper  represents  one  or  more 
of  the  warp  threads,  which  run  lengthwise  of  the  fabric 
and  are  termed  ends;  while  each  line  of  squares  across 
the  paper  represents  a  weft  thread,  which  runs  across  the 
fabric  and  is  termed  a  pick.  In  this  Section  the  term 
pick  will  always  refer  to  a  single  cross-thread  and  the 
term  end  to  a  single  warp  thread. 


4 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


§8 


The  design  paper,  when  purchased  by  the  designer,  is 
usually  in  cloth  size ,  that  is  to  say,  it  is  full  size,  the  design 
on  the  paper  being  the  same  size  as  the  design  on  the 
finished  fabric.  Cloth  size  for  Brussels  and  Wilton  carpet 
is  27  inches  (f  yard)  wide,  and  as  in  Brussels  carpet  there  are 
8  ends  to  the  inch;  the  full  width  of  the  carpet  contains 
216  ends.  The  length  of  the  paper  varies,  as  it  is  governed 


Fig.  1 

by  the  length  of  the  repeat.  The  squares  are  grouped  into 
larger  squares,  each  of  which  is  known  as  a  design,  and 
a  pattern  in  which  the  repeat  is  based  on  a  27-inch  square, 
as  in  Fig.  2,  is  known  as  a  32  design  wide  by  32  design 
long.  Each  of  these  designs  is  divided  into  64  smaller 
squares;  these  small  squares  are  the  ones  that  are  of  most 


§8 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


5 


practical  use  to  the  designer  and  to  the  weaver;  the  larger 
ones  are  emphasized  simply  to  enable  the  designer  to 
count  the  smaller  ones  better  in  spaces  divided  accordingly. 
Multiplying  32  designs  in  width  by  8,  the  number  of  squares 
in  each  design,  we  have  256  small  squares  in  the  width  of 
the  paper,  which  corresponds  with  the  number  of  loops 
placed  side  by  side  in  the  standard  width  of  Brussels  carpet. 

Each  square  in  the  design  paper,  therefore,  corresponds 
to  one  loop  of  thread  in  the  pile  of  warp  that  comes  to  the 
surface  of  the  loom  and  forms  the  carpet.  In  other  words, 
each  row  of  squares  across  the  carpet  represents  1  pick.  The 
fineness  or  coarseness  of  the  pick  depends  on  the  number  of 
picks  to  the  inch,  ordinary  Brussels  carpet  being  made  with 
9  picks  to  the  inch,  while  exceedingly  fine  carpet  has  as 
many  as  13.  As  each  pick  appears  as  a  row  of  loops,  the 
various  colored  yarns  brought  to  the  surface  unite  to  form 
the  pattern  or  design,  and  it  is  therefore  evident  that  each 
square  on  the  design  paper  must  be  accounted  for  by  the 
designer  to  the  weaver,  so  that  the  loom  may  be  arranged  to 
bring  to  the  surface  at  the  proper  point  the  proper  color 
of  yarn.  _ 


DESIGNING 

5.  The  experienced  designer  usually  roughs  out  his 
sketch  directly  on  the  design  paper,  using  for  this  purpose 
charcoal  or  crayon  and,  at  the  beginning,  giving  no  heed 
whatsoever  to  cross-sections  or  squares.  Long  sinuous 
curves  with  free  open  drawing  indicate  the  general  trend 
of  the  main  features  of  the  design,  and  finely  drawn  details 
are  worked  up  afterwards.  In  doing  this,  the  designer 
never  loses  sight  of  the  fact  that  in  his  completed  work 
the  lines  and  figures  must  be  represented  by  a  series  of 
checkers,  and  he  instinctively  avoids  such  geometrical 
forms  as  are  too  minute  to  be  boldly  expressed  in  this 
manner.  Long  delicate  curves  extending  in  a  horizontal 
direction  are  impossible,  as  they  must  necessarily  be  made 
up  by  a  series  of  long  straight  lines  separated  from  each 
other  just  1  pick;  bold  decided  curves,  however,  may  be 


6 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


§8 


drawn  in  almost  any  direction.  In  Fig.  3  are  shown  examples 
of  both  good  and  bad  renderings  of  curves,  which  serve  well 
to  illustrate  this  point.  On  one  side  are  shown  the  outlines 
of  the  forms  that  are  to  be  represented,  while  on  the  other  side 
are  the  results  of  these  curves  worked  out  on  the  squares. 


Fig.  3 


After  the  figures  are  drawn  in  with  charcoal,  the  design  is 
ticked  in;  this  consists  of  indicating,  by  little  spots  of 
color,  what  areas  are  to  be  filled  in  with  the  different  colors. 
The  color  scheme  of  the  design  must  be  decided  on  before¬ 
hand  and  the  figures  carefully  outlined,  and  the  color  of  each 
indicated  by  a  touch  of  the  proper  tint.  The  experienced 


§8 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


7 


designer  will  make  use  of  the  checker  effect  to  get  the  best 
possible  drawing. 

Different  designers  use  different  methods  of  starting  the 
work,  and  each  student  must  determine  for  himself,  after 
some  practice,  which  method  will  best  attain  the  proper 
results.  Some  designers  carefully  draw  out  the  figures,  in 
pencil,  before  filling  in  with  color;  others  start  in  with  the 
color  and  “feel”  for  a  pattern  and  the  color  scheme  at  the 
same  time.  In  Fig.  4  is  shown  a  design  commenced  in  this 
manner;  the  main  figures  have  been  “roughed  out”  in  char¬ 
coal  and  afterwards  ticked  in  with  dark  blue;  then  the  differ¬ 
ent  areas  are  filled  in  roughly  with  the  local  color.  These 
trial  color  areas  should  be  washed  in  with  thin  color  so  that 
the  ruled  lines  are  not  obliterated,  and  the  colors  can  then 
be  altered  without  the  application  of  two  coats  of  the  heavier 
opaque  color,  which  would  be  likely  to  chip  off  if  the  design 
were  much  handled. 

The  figures  drawn  in  outline  on  the  design  paper  are 
likely  to  appear  much  more  perfect  than  when  filled  in  with 
color;  therefore,  it  is  advisable  to  “rough  in”  the  general 
design  in  color  as  it  brings  to  light  at  once  any  bad  draft¬ 
ing  and  gives  the  designer  an  opportunity  to  remedy  this 
defect  before  it  is  too  late. 

In  the  factory,  where  the  busy  designer  has  a  number  of 
helpers,  he  would  not  carry  his  design  quite  as  far  as  is 
shown  in  Fig.  4,  but  after  roughing  it  out  would  hand  it 
over  to  the  helper,  trusting  to  him  to  carry  out  the  effect 
and  color  scheme  that  he  has  indicated  by  ticking  in. 

For  ticking  in  and  “ putting  on,”  it  is  well  to  use  old  or  worn 
red  sable  brushes,  or  new  ones  whose  points  have  been  pur¬ 
posely  cut  off,  or  burnt  off  by  touching  them  to  a  red-hot 
iron,  to  fit  the  size  of  the  checks. 

The  use  of  large  squares  in  the  design  can  be  observed  in 
the  bold  treatment  of  the  pattern  shown  in  Fig.  4,  as  the 
designer  can  here  tick  in  only  one-half  of  each  of  the  figures 
so  that  a  helper  can  reproduce  the  other  side  by  counting 
the  squares.  The  beginner,  however,  must  learn  to  carry 
out  his  entire  pattern  from  start  to  finish  in  general  scheme, 


8 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


§8 


as  shown  in  Fig.  4,  and  to  finish  it  up  himself.  The  length 
of  the  repeat  in  Fig.  4  is  27  inches,  the  pattern  being  a  drop 
repeat,  and  the  large  figure  drawn  in  the  center  with  a 
repetition  of  one-quarter  of  it  at  each  corner  is  27  inches 
square.  There  are  five  colors  intended,  as  shown  in  the 
illustration. 

6.  The  Problem  of  Color. — To  the  designer  of  Brus¬ 
sels  and  Wilton  carpets,  the  problem  of  color  is  of  the 
greatest  importance. 

The  colored  yarns  are  brought  to  the  surface  where 
required  by  means  of  the  Jacquard  machine,  which  governs 
each  end  of  warp  yarn.  The  proper  colors  are  raised  at 
each  pick  to  allow  the  passage  of  the  shuttle  carrying  the 
weft  thread,  and  the  insertion  of  the  wire  rule  over  which 
a  loop  of  the  particular  color  is  formed.  The  insertion 
and  withdrawal  of  the  wires  is  performed  automatically  by 
the  loom  by  means  of  a  contrivance  called  the  wire  motion. 

7.  Frames. — The  spools  of  worsted  are  inserted  in 
racks,  called  frames,  a  separate  frame  being  required  for 
each  color  or  set  of  pile  warp  threads.  Fig.  4  shows  a 
design  for  a  five-frame  Brussels  or  Wilton  carpet.  Any  of 
the  five  colors — red,  gold,  sage,  dark  blue,  and  ecru — that 
appear  throughout  the  width,  can  be  traced  so  that  it  will  be 
found  somewhere  in  the  repeat  to  occupy  each  of  the  256 
squares  that  extend  across  the  ruled  paper.  If  this  carpet 
were  woven  in  only  one  color,  it  would  require  256  warp 
threads  of  this  color  to  be  wound  at  the  back  of  the  loom; 
this  would  make  one  full  frame,  as  each  frame  contains  256 
bobbins,  holding  256  pile  warp  threads.  As  these  warp 
threads  are  consumed  in  the  weaving  with  unequal  rapidity, 
according  to  the  frequency  with  which  the  different  threads 
are  drawn  to  the  surface  to  form  the  pattern,  it  is  impracti¬ 
cable  to  wind  them  all  on  one  big  bobbin  or  beam.  The 
pattern  shown  in  Fig.  4,  however,  calls  for  five  colors;  there¬ 
fore,  we  must  have  a  frame  with  256  bobbins  on  it  for 
each  individual  color.  A  five-frame  Brussels  carpet,  there¬ 
fore,  has  5  X  256  —  1,280  colored  warp  threads  fed  into  the 


§8 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


9 


fabric  constantly  at  the  back  of  the  loom.  At  each  pick, 
2o6  ends  of  warp  thread  are  raised  and  a  wire  thrust  under; 
then  the  weft  thread  binds  them  into  place  and  1  pick  of  the 
pattern  is  formed.  The  remaining  1,024  colored  warp  yarns 
are  hidden  and  lie  idly  in  the  body  of  the  pattern,  giving 
this  carpet  the  name  of  body  Brussels. 

This  is  the  principle  of  the  five-frame  weave;  the  four- 
frame  weave  requires  4  X  256  =  1,024  ends,  and  the  three- 
frame,  i 68  ends,  etc.  1  hus  we  see  that  the  five-frame  carpet 
has  256  more  ends  of  warp  in  its  body  than  a  four-frame,  and 
ol2  moie  ends  than  a  three-frame.  It  is  evident,  then,  that 
the  former  is  much  heavier  and  contains  much  more  material 
than  the  latter,  and  is  therefore  costlier,  regardless  of  the 
character  of  the  pattern. 

As  far  as  the  simple  process  of  weave  is  concerned,  each 
one  of  the  1,280  strands  in  the  five-frame  carpet  could  be  a 
different  shade,  but  the  color  effect  in  such  a  case  could  not 
be  conceived,  as  there  would  be  simply  a  blending  of  all  in 
one.  Where  each  frame  contains  a  different  color,  as  in 
Fig.  5,  the  pattern  can  be  formed  by  bringing  the  colored 
warps  to  the  surface  in  different  quantities  and  having  them 
distributed  on  different  spools,  according  to  the  quantities  in 
which  they  are  required. 

8.  Planting. — This  does  not  necessarily  restrict  the 
designer  to  the  employment  of  the  same  number  of  colors  in 
his  pattern  as  the  number  of  frames  in  his  loom,  and  on  this 
variation  of  the  color  scheme  depends  the  important  details 
of  the  design.  The  designer’s  ingenuity  is  taxed  to  produce 
the  best  arrangement  of  comparatively  few  colors  to  pro¬ 
duce  the  best  results.  The  designer  may  use  six  or  seven 
colors  in  a  five-frame  fabric,  but  to  do  this  he  must  make 
use  of  the  system  known  as  planting,  which  means  the 
introduction  of  two  or  more  colors  in  one  frame  so  that  each 
will  contribute  its  share  to  the  fabric  without  interfering  one 
with  another.  Each  of  the  five  frames  could  be  a  planted 
fiame  if  desired,  but  as  a  rule  three  or  four  of  the  frames  are 
run  full  in  solid  color  and  the  remainder  are  planted. 


10 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


§8 


It  is  necessary  for  the  designer  to  arrange  below  his 
design  the  plant  or  gamut  of  colors,  showing  exactly  how 
many  ends  of  each  color  is  used  in  each  frame,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  5.  The  plant  is  laid  out  on  a  separate  strip  of  paper, 
and  as  the  colors  are  painted  in  on  the  design  they  are 
arranged  in  their  proper  places  on  the  plant,  so  that  when 
this  plant  is  submitted  to  the  weaver  he  is  able  to  arrange 
his  bobbins  on  the  frames  accordingly. 

In  Fig.  5,  the  design  contains  eight  colors — black,  red, 
dark  gold,  green,  green-blue,  pink,  light  gold,  and  ecru. 
The  only  full  frames  are  the  black  and  red,  as  shown  by  the 
solid  lines  across  the  plant.  The  dark  gold  is  somewhat 
less  than  a  full  frame,  16  ends  being  vacant,  as  shown  at  (a). 
The  green-blue  is  planted  with  green  in  the  next  frame  but 
this  is  not  full,  16  ends  being  vacant  at  (b),  12  at  (c),  and 
13  at  (d) .  In  the  next  frame,  the  pink  and  the  light  gold 
are  planted,  3  ends  being  vacant  at  (e) ,  16  at  (/),  and  25 
at  (g) .  In  the  five  frames  102  vacant  ends  are  shown,  but 
as  this  example  shows  only  one-half  of  the  design,  there 
would  be  204  vacant  ends  altogether. 

Should  this  carpet  be  woven  with  the  seven  colors  men¬ 
tioned,  omitting  the  ecru,  it  would  not  be  a  full  five-frame 
value,  although  five  frames  were  used;  therefore,  a  sixth 
frame  is  introduced  in  which  a  sufficient  number  of  ends  of 
ecru  are  used  to  make  up  for  the  missing  ends  in  the  other 
frames,  namely,  102  in  this  half  pattern  or  204  in  the 
full  width. 

This  would  make  a  six-frame  fabric  so  far  as  the  weaving 
is  concerned,  but  only  a  five-frame  fabric  so  far  as  the  finish¬ 
ing  part  of  it  is  concerned.  Thus  you  see  that  the  designer 
left  204  vacant  ends  in  the  width  of  his  design  so  that  he 
could  finally  introduce  an  extra  color,  and  a  tracing  of  the 
ends  as  they  extend  through  the  pattern  would  easily  illus¬ 
trate  how  these  colors  have  been  balanced  and  worked  out. 

9.  Planted  designs  possess  mechanical  limitations  that 
must  be  understood  by  the  designer.  One  cannot  bring  out 
a  planted  color  throughout  the  design  at  any  place  he 


§8 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


11 


chooses,  as  he  can  with  the  color  from  a  full  frame. 
Planted  colors  exist  in  those  ends  only  in  front  of  which 
they  are  placed,  and  they  cannot  be  brought  up  in  the 
design  where  these  ends  do  not  pass.  For  it  can  be  seen 
that  the  planted  warp  threads  exist  in  the  fabric  as  a  series 
of  longitudinal  stripes,  and  the  order  of  these  stripes  cannot 
be  disarranged  to  bring  the  colors  to  the  surface  elsewhere. 
The  designer  must,  therefore,  keep  this  limitation  in  mind 
and  exercise  care  and  ingenuity  not  to  reproduce  a  distinctly 
striped  effect.  An  ingenious  designer  will  so  arrange  his 
figures  and  distribute  his  colors  that  the  finished  design 
will  give  no  indication  of  the  fact  that  the  colors  have 
been  planted.  The  employment  of  planted  colors  in 
Brussels  carpet  is  sometimes  referred  to  as  chintzing , 
and  it  is  possible  to  make  every  one  of  the  256  bobbins  a 
different  color. 

While  it  is  never  necessary  that  every  bobbin  should  carry 
a  different  colored  yarn,  the  fact  that  such  can  be  the  case 
enables  us  to  make  a  kind  of  pattern  known  as  the  chintzing 
pattern,  where  natural  floral  forms  are  woven  with  some 
attempt  to  reproduce  their  effects  in  color,  light  and 
shade,  etc.,  as  shown  in  Fig.  8.  This  involves  the  fullest 
knowledge  and  ability  in  making  planted  designs,  as  a  great 
variety  of  colors  in  the  different  forms  of  ornament  and 
effects  of  shading  in  the  color  is  produced  by  arranging,  side 
by  side,  various  tones  in  the  same  frame.  A  flower  can 
thus  be  produced  with  four  or  five  tones  of  yellow,  where 
beside  it  you  will  find  one  with  several  tones  of  blue,  and 
another  in  red,  etc. 

These  colors  run  in  line  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the 
floral  design,  variety  being  possible  only  laterally;  thus, 
flowers  coming  in  the  same  vertical  line  can  be  alike  in 
color.  Small  sections  of  color  can  be  brought  to  the  surface 
from  other  frames  and  form  accents  to  strengthen  the  draw¬ 
ing,  to  break  up  large  masses,  and  otherwise  improve  the 
general  effect,  and  there  are  endless  opportunities  and  possi¬ 
bilities  in  this  connection  wherein  the  designer  can  exercise 
his  ingenuity  and  skill. 


12 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


§8 


10.  In  Fig.  6  is  another  example  of  planting  where  the 
red,  blue,  sage,  and  ecru,  and  the  three  tones  of  dark  brown 
have  been  introduced  in  the  pattern,  making  the  total  number 
of  colors  seven.  It  will  be  observed,  too,  that  neither  the 
red  nor  the  ecru  extend  over  the  full  width  of  the  border. 
All  the  middle  tone  of  the  brown  is  planted  with  red,  but  by 
carefully  observing  one  can  see  that  nowhere  in  the  pattern 
do  these  colors  come  in  the  same  vertical  line.  All  the 
dark  brown  that  appears  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  border 
between  (a)  and  ( b )  is  planted  with  the  red,  and  all  the 
dark  brown  between  ( b )  and  ( c )  is  planted  in  blue,  while  that 
which  refers  to  the  inner  edge  of  the  pattern  is  planted  with 
the  ecru.  We  thus  have  planting  of  one  color  on  three 
frames,  the  dark  brown  existing  with  the  red,  blue,  and  ecru. 

11.  For  a  beginner,  the  five-frame  plan  of  design  affords 
a  problem  of  sufficient  difficulty,  and  he  should  not  concern 
himself  with  planting  colors  until  he  acquires  a  thorough 
working  knowledge  of  the  changes  that  can  be  effectuated  in 
five-frame  designs. 

Here,  he  must  not  only  employ  five  colors,  but  he  must 
employ  them  in  such  a  manner  that  the  best  effect  can  be 
obtained  in  their  proper  combination.  If,  in  working  on  the 
five-frame  plan,  only  four  colors  appear  with  prominence,  and 
the  fifth  color  comes  to  the  surface  in  isolated  spots,  it  is 
evident  that  there  are  many  ends  on  the  fifth  frame  that  are 
being  woven  into  the  carpet  without  doing  any  service  other 
than  to  add  to  its  body.  Under  such  conditions  the  designer 
would  be  producing  only  a  4i-frame  effect  while  giving  a  five- 
frame  quality,  and  his  design  would  therefore  be  considered 
defective,  as  he  is  not  getting  the  most  from  his  five  frames. 

12.  Standard  Repeats. — The  usual  standard  for  a 
repeat  in  Brussels  and  Wilton  carpets  is  27  inches,  although 
carpets  are  woven  a  full  yard  in  width  for  stairs  and  halls. 
Stair  carpets  are  occasionally  woven  with  two  side  borders 
and  a  filling,  while  the  same  border  is  sometimes  woven 
separately  to  be  attached  to  the  regular  hall  carpet  designed 
to  match  the  filling  of  the  stairs. 


§8 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


13 


Stair  carpets  are  also  made  in  widths  of  i  and  f  yard, 
with  borders  to  match,  and  the  fillings  are  woven  in  various 
widths,  such  as  I,  i,  and  f  yard.  The  border  shown  in  Fig.  6 
is  woven  on  216  ends,  making  it  about  f  yard  wide  when 
executed  on  8x8  paper.  In  length,  it  repeats  once  in 
128  picks,  or  f  yard,  but  the  same  design  can  be  extended 
to  256  picks  by  changing  the  color  arrangement  in  the  large 
figures  alternately,  thus  giving  it  a  repeat  of  f  yard. 
Repeats  can  be  woven  in  various  lengths  up  to  1|  yards, 
under  which  conditions  very  broad  and  bold  effects  may 
be  obtained. 

A  long  repeat  is  usually  arranged  on  a  drop  pattern,  so  that 
there  may  not  be  too  much  waste  in  getting  the  goods 
to  match  properly  when  a  carpet  is  fitted. 

A  small  pattern  that  is  so  designed  that  it  cannot  be 
matched  in  less  than  a  yard  is  an  unprofitable  design  for  the 
retail  dealer  to  carry,  and  a  thoughtful  designer  must  take 
this  into  consideration,  as  it  is  likely  to  prevent  the  disposal 
of  his  design.  Such  designs  have  been  made  by  thoughtless 
designers  and  manufactured  by  unobserving  manufacturers, 
and  often  have  been  sold  to  retail  dealers,  the  defect  remain¬ 
ing  unknown  until  the  cutter  would  endeavor  to  fit  a  room, 
when  he  would  find  that  a  yard  or  more  in  each  length  would 
have  to  be  wasted  in  order  to  secure  a  satisfactory  repeat. 

13.  Designing?  Carpets  That  May  Be  Formed  Into 
Rugs. — Carpets  are  frequently  made  in  patterns  that  are  to 
establish  uniformly  sized  rugs.  The  usual  sizes  of  Brussels 
rugs  are  6  feet  by  9  feet,  8  feet  3  inches  by  10  feet  6  inches, 
and  9  feet  by  12  feet.  Wilton  rugs  are  made  in  the  same 
sizes,  as  well  as  36  inches  by  63  inches,  36  inches  by 
72  inches.  One  style  of  Wilton  rugs,  known  as  hall  runners , 
are  3  feet  by  9  feet,  3  feet  by  12  feet,  and  3  feet  by  15  feet. 
A  Brussels  or  Wilton  rug,  9  feet  by  12  feet,  is  made  up  of 
four  strips,  each  12  feet  long  and  27  inches  wide,  which  are 
sewed  together.  The  two  outer  strips  contain  the  side 
border  and  its  return  on  the  corner,  and  usually  a  part  of 
the  filling,  unless  the  border  is  27  inches  wide.  The  two 


14 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


8 


inner  strips  finish  out  the  borders  across  the  ends  and  also 
the  fillings. 

In  designing  a  rug  of  this  character,  the  designer  must 
prepare  his  design  for  one-quarter  of  the  entire  space,  which 
will  require  four  sheets  of  cloth-sized  paper.  The  width  of 
the  design  will  contain  512  ends,  an  equivalent  of  li  yards, 
while  the  length  will  include  648  picks  at  9  picks  to  the 
inch,  or  72  inches.  Thus,  one-half  of  the  length  and  one- 
half  of  the  width  of  the  rug  is  expressed  in  the  design,  and 
the  duplication  of  these  details  is  effected  through  the 
mechanical  devices  in  the  loom.  The  designer  need  not 
concern  himself  about  this  detail,  however,  but  must  arrange 
his  design  in  such  a  manner  that  the  figures  expressed  in  the 
rug  will  turn  over  and  match  properly.  The  design  is 
usually  executed  at  the  lower  left-hand  corner  of  the  rug, 
and  the  four  pieces  of  paper  are  laid  out  as  though  they 
were  one  sheet,  the  proper  number  of  ends  and  picks  being 
accurately  accounted  for. 

14.  As  it  is  desirable  that  rugs  of  this  character  should 
appear  as  if  made  of  one  piece,  rather  than  of  several  pieces 
sewed  together,  the  skilful  designer  schemes  out  his  pattern 
so  that  the  seams  are  hidden  as  much  as  possible.  The 
first  seam  passes  directly  through  the  center  of  the  drawing 
and  can  be  used  as  a  center  line  on  which  the  figures 
duplicate  or  repeat  to  form  the  symmetrical  devices  on  each 
side.  If  a  27-inch  border  is  used,  this  seam  can  be  hidden 
by  the  line  of  the  border  itself  where  it  unites  with  the  rug. 
A  small  wandering  all-over  pattern  is  most  effectual  for  hiding 
the  seam  where  it  is  desired  that  it  should  be  suppressed,  and 
a  plain  ground  or  filling  is  most  likely  to  bring  it  into  prom¬ 
inence.  Where  a  plain  ground  is  desired  in  the  rug,  as  a 
whole  or  in  a  portion  of  the  border,  it  is  best  that  some  of  the 
design  should  extend  beyond  the  seam  at  the  end  of  the  rug 
where  the  side  borders  and  end  borders  unite,  as  the  most 
objectionable  place  for  the  seam  to  show  itself  is  at  this  point. 

Designs  for  rugs  smaller  than  9  feet  by  12  feet  are  adapted 
from  the  9  ft.  X  12  ft.  pattern.  In  rugs  8  feet  3  inches 


§8 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


15 


by  10  feet  6  inches,  the  two  outside  strips  are  ■§■  yard  instead 
of  1  yard,  making  a  reduction  of  4\  inches  from  the  previous 
border  from  each  side  of  the  rug,  or  9  inches  in  the  entire 
width.  If  the  pattern  permits,  this  diminution  in  size  is 
removed  from  the  filling  of  the  rug  and  the  border  is  left  as 
it  was  originally  designed  for  the  9  ft.  X  12  ft.  size. 

Sometimes  a  border  is  composed  of  a  number  of  sub¬ 
divisions,  so  that  when  the  smaller  rug  is  prepared  one  of  the 
subdivisions  is  omitted  from  the  border,  thus  making  it 
narrow.  The  two  middle  widths  for  the  filling  of  the  rug  are 
left  f  yard  wide,  and  the  length  is  reduced  by  dropping 
i  yard  from  the  filling;  though,  if  4\  inches  has  been  dropped 
from  the  border,  only  4i  inches  need  be  dropped  from 
the  filling. 

In  the  next  smaller  size,  6  feet  by  9  feet,  the  side  strips  are 
t  yard  in  width  and  the  length  is  reduced  an  even  yard.  In 
making  these  corrections,  care  should  be  taken  that  no 
redesigning  is  necessary,  as  much  trouble  and  expense  can  be 
saved  by  the  observance  of  this  rule. 

1  5.  Forming  New  Patterns. — Occasionally  it  becomes 
necessary  that  an  entirely  new  pattern  be  drawn,  but  this 
rarely  involves  more  trouble  than  the  copying  of  the  original 
design,  with  the  omission  of  certain  details  and  the  alteration 
of  others. 

This  practice  of  redrafting  a  design  does  not  require 
the  skill  and  experience  of  the  head  designer,  but  its  easy 
accomplishment  can  be  effectuated  only  through  the  fore¬ 
thought  of  the  head  designer  in  the  planning  of  the  original 
9  ft.  X  12  ft.  rug.  In  this  he  has  given  due  consideration 
to  the  separate  sizes  and  has  planned  his  border  and  filling 
so  they  can  be  cut  down  to  the  standard  sizes  without 
materially  detracting  from  the  general  effect  of  the  design. 

In  redesigning  or  redrawing  the  smaller  sizes,  it  is  nearly 
always  necessary  that  there  should  be  a  reduction  in  the 
scale  of  the  ornament,  and  as  the  beginner  is  likely  to  omit 
much  of  the  detail  in  order  to  effect  this  reduction,  the  work 
requires  the  services  of  a  more  experienced  man  than  does 


16 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


§8 


the  reducing  of  the  larger  sizes.  In  this  work  the  designer 
should  be  able  to  reproduce  the  original  design  on  a  smaller 
scale  without  losing  the  general  effect  and  general  appear¬ 
ance  of  the  original. 

The  hall  runners  and  other  1-yard-wide  sizes  are  usually 
woven  in  one  piece  and  are  executed  on  the  design  paper 
accordingly.  The  9  ft.  X  12  ft.  rugs  have  been  woven  in  one 
piece  also,  but  they  are  very  expensive  and  have  not  as  yet 
come  into  general  use. 

16.  Popular  Designs. — The  most  popular  designs  for 
rugs  at  the  present  time  are  oriental  patterns,  which  have 
succeeded  entirely  the  floral  patterns  that  were  so  popular  a 
few  years  ago.  Many  of  the  latest  carpet  designs  are  delib¬ 
erate  copies  of  oriental  rugs  that  have  been  rendered  from 
high-priced  originals  and  reduced  to  mechanical  methods  of 
weaving  without  losing  the  color  effect  and  general  appear¬ 
ance  of  the  original.  The  machine-woven  carpets  can  never 
compete  closely  with  the  hand-made  article  of  the  Orient,  as 
they  are  bound  to  be  lacking  in  that  charm  and  variety  of  color 
that  is  characteristic  of  oriental  rugs.  Skilful  designers, 
however,  by  the  careful  planting  of  colors,  succeed  in 
obtaining  a  richness  of  effect  that  is  strongly  suggestive  of 
oriental  motives.  This  is  usually  effected  by  using  a  number 
of  colors  that  are  equal  in  tone  but  different  in  color,  the 
amount  of  difference  in  color  varying  with  the  design,  some 
being  widely  different  while  others  are  only  slightly  differ¬ 
ent.  Good  effects  have  been  produced  by  introducing  green 
and  bluish  gray  in  the  same  frame,  and  also  green  and  blue 
with  very  little  or  no  contrast  of  tone.  Some  patterns  pro¬ 
duce  a  pleasing  effect  by  the  introduction  of  a  very  small 
quantity  of  bluish  green  in  order  to  break  the  monotony  of 
the  background  of  a  rather  warmer  green. 

The  most  popular  carpets  at  the  present  time  are  those  in 
bright  oriental  colorings,  such  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  7,  rich 
reds,  deep  blues,  and  gold  being  the  most  prominent  in  this 
scheme,  while  small  quantities  of  green,  turquoise,  pink,  ecru, 
orange,  yellow,  white,  and  black  are  introduced  to  give 


14596 


/£Q  Ends 


Fig.  C 


14596 


14596 


Ftp,.  R 


1459C 


Fig.  9 


14596 


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14596 


Fig.  12 


u. 


Fig.  13 


uzmtutt 


>jai*»w»^»>'  ">'  >..i  mi  mi^riW'i  i  i'  '/WHS 


** ft/*v*/'*V* /v  • *-/v  ^V>  •  ->/ V  • 


14596 


Fig.  15 


14596 


8 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


17 


variety.  Floral  patterns  are  still  produced  for  cheaper 
grades  of  carpet,  and  even  for  some  very  expensive  ones, 
an  example  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  8. 

In  Fig.  8  is  shown  the  modern  Wilton  border  woven  by 
one  of  the  leading  American  manufacturers.  It  is  a  natural¬ 
istic  arrangement  of  peonies  and  daisies,  and  strong  in  relief 
against  the  rich  green  ground.  Although  this  is  a  remark¬ 
able  example  of  what  can  be  accomplished  in  weaving  with 
five  frames  and  a  system  of  planting,  it  is  a  most  extrava¬ 
gant  realistic  design,  especially  for  a  Wilton  carpet,  owing  to 
the  great  waste  of  material.  It  would  be  interesting  to 
work  out  the  plant  of  this  pattern,  involving  as  it  does 
twelve  to  fifteen  colors,  and  it  is  a  typical  example  of  the 
amount  of  ingenuity  and  skill  that  the  craftsman  can  waste  in 
producing  a  pattern  difficult  to  weave  and  expensive  to  repro¬ 
duce  without  in  any  way  being  appropriate  to  its  purpose. 

Compare  Fig.  9  with  Fig.  8  and  observe  the  contrast. 
Fig.  9  is  a  Morris  design  adapted  to  Wilton  carpets.  There  are 
but  four  colors — two  blues,  two  yellows,  a  red,  and  a  green. 
The  flowers  in  the  pattern  are  honestly  conventionalized  to 
suit  them  to  their  purpose,  the  effect  thereby  being  rendered 
perfectly  flat  and  thoroughly  suitable  for  a  floor  covering. 
It  is  not  a  pattern  that  would  attract  the  public  at  first  sight, 
but  the  public  taste  is  growing  in  this  direction,  and  the  use 
of  such  patterns  trains  one  to  appreciate  them  and  gives  a 
feeling  of  satisfaction  that  can  never  be  attained  by  such 
floral  designs  as  were  shown  in  Fig.  8.  As  public  taste  is 
improved  the  designer  of  conventional  patterns  will  increase 
in  popularity,  and  however  great  may  be  his  skill  as  a  weaver, 
the  producer  of  patterns  such  as  Fig.  8  will  find  his  services 
less  and  less  in  demand  as  time  goes  on. 

The  better  class  of  dealers,  however,  do  not  carry  this  line 
of  goods,  and  the  public  is  becoming  rapidly  educated  in  the 
theories  of  design  and  is  able  to  appreciate  the  inappropri¬ 
ateness  of  floral  designs  of  this  character.  The  wide-awake 
carpet  designer  must  keep  himself  posted  concerning  the 
demands  of  the  public,  and,  like  designers  in  other  fields,  he 
must  anticipate  the  wants  of  the  average  buyer. 


18 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


§8 


17.  Obtaining  Suggestions  for  Designs. — Students 
that  know  nothing  about  carpets,  and  carpet  designers  from 
a  practical  standpoint,  should  embrace  every  opportunity  to 
go  over  the  stock  of  a  good  retail  dealer  and  learn,  in  con¬ 
nection  with  these,  the  character  of  designs  that  are  most 
popular,  and  study  at  the  same  time  the  designs  of  wall¬ 
papers,  furniture,  and  other  elements  of  interior  decoration 
that  are  presenting  themselves  in  the  market.  Public  taste 
first  expresses  itself  in  architecture  and  then  in  design,  and 
from  the  character  of  furniture  that  we  find  exhibited  in  the 
windows  we  can  determine  the  styles  of  carpets  and  wall¬ 
papers  that  will  soon  be  in  demand.  The  reason  for  this  is 
very  easily  understood.  The  intelligent  purchaser  endeavors 
to  furnish  his  house  with  various  articles  that  are  in  accord¬ 
ance  with  the  general  style  of  architecture  of  his  house,  and 
as  it  is  easier  to  express  certain  set  forms  and  set  styles 
in  furniture  one  usually  selects  his  floor  coverings  and  wall 
coverings  to  match  his  furniture  rather  than  to  select  his 
furniture  to  match  the  coverings. 

With  the  delicately  carved  and  simply  modeled  furniture 
that  was  characteristic  of  the  earliest  Renaissance,  we  find 
delicate  arabesques  adapted  from  carvings  decorating  the 
walls;  and  as  the  later  Renaissance  introduced  the  absurdity 
of  Rococo  ornament  in  furniture,  accompanied  by  elaborate 
carving  and  much  gilding,  we  find  likewise  reproduced  in 
meaningless  wall  decoration  and  elaborate  pilaster  ornament, 
an  excess  of  meaningless  forms  everywhere.  With  the 
period  of  the  Empire  that  followed  these  absurdities,  and 
the  return  of  classic  models  and  simple,  severe  furniture, 
with  occasional  ornaments  and  festoons  carved  and  gilded, 
we  have  wall  decorations  of  the  same  severe  character 
corresponding  with  it  in  style.  Likewise,  at  the  present  day 
with  the  introduction  of  the  severe  “Mission”  furniture,  and 
the  later  reproductions  of  furniture  on  the  Gothic  model, 
our  wall  decorations  tend  to  tapestry  effects  based  on 
Gothic  ideas,  and  our  floor  coverings  occasionally  become 
simple  and  severe  in  design  so  as  to  be  in  harmony  with 
their  surroundings. 


§8 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


19 


ORIENTAL  RUGS 

18.  The  patterns  characteristic  of  oriental  rug's  are 
seriously  imitated  with  more  or  less  success.  In  the 
Wilton  carpetings  produced  by  the  modern  loom,  the  carpet 
designer  endeavors  to  secure,  with  the  means  at  his  disposal, 
the  effect  of  bloom  characteristic  of  the  old  oriental  hand 
weaving.  This  can  never  be  fully  accomplished,  owing  to 
the  limitations  of  the  five  frames  and  the  planting.  But 
inspirations  can  be  drawn  from  the  study  of  oriental  patterns 
and  worked  up  by  the  skilful  designer  into  something  that  is 
suitable  for  modern  weaving  without  being  a  direct  imita¬ 
tion.  Oriental  rugs  are  hand  made.  Men,  women,  and  even 
children  are  engaged  before  the  loom  tying,  by  hand,  the 
tufts  of  dyed  yarn  that  are  to  form  the  pattern  of  the  finished 
fabric.  These  yarns,  in  the  best  quality  of  rugs,  are  dyed 
with  a  vegetable  dye  that  is  permanent  and  unchanging 
throughout  centuries,  except  so  far  as  it  acquires  a  softening 
effect  that  delightfully  blends  one  color  into  another.  These 
rug  weavers  receive  a  mere  pittance  of  a  few  cents  per  week 
for  their  services,  and  in  oriental  countries  a  carpet  that  may 
have  taken  over  a  year  to  weave  does  not  represent  any  large 
amount  of  money  to  the  weaver;  and  sells  for  what  would  be 
considered  an  absurd  price  in  this  country. 

Commercialism  of  late  years  has  entered  the  far  East, 
however,  and  rugs  are  now  made  there  with  aniline  dyed 
wools  that  fade  and  lose  their  freshness  without  acquiring 
the  soft  bloom  so  characteristic  of  the  antique  goods. 

Every  country  in  the  old  world  had  some  particular  guild 
of  craftsmen  that  characterized  the  country,  and  the  guild 
of  most  importance  in  oriental  countries  was  that  of  the 
dyers.  The  dyers  were  divided  into  different  classes  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  colors  they  could  dye,  and  they  lived  in  colonies 
regulated  by  the  convenience  of  water  facilities  in  applying 


20 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


8 


their  craft.  The  dyes  were  applied  by  dipping  the  skeins  of 
yarn  in  successive  solutions  alternately,  and  not  by  mixing 
the  dyes  to  form  a  color  as  in  modern  times.  The  exact 
method  of  doing  this  was  one  of  the  guild  secrets,  as  was 
also  the  length  of  time  it  should  hang  in  the  sun  to  dry  and 
soften.  There  are  no  books  of  recipe  for  these  dyes,  but 
each  dyer  has  a  mental  list  of  various  shades  that  he  can 
compound  at  a  moment’s  notice  in  order  to  satisfy  the 
demand.  The  skill  of  these  dyers  can  be  judged  when  we 
understand  that  one  of  them,  blindfolded,  can  run  his  hands 
over  a  rug  and  describe  the  pattern  accurately  from  the 
feeling  of  the  different  colors  in  the  wool,  so  familiar  is  he 
with  the  effect  of  the  dyes  on  the  fabric. 

The  imitation  of  the  ancient  dyes  by  the  modern  products 
of  coal  tar  has  degenerated  the  rug  industry  materially,  as 
has  also  the  demand  in  Europe  and  America  for  oriental 
fabrics,  and  the  Wilton  rug  woven  on  the  loom  is  in  many 
respects  preferable  to  what  are  apparently  genuine  oriental 
fabrics,  but  which  are  in  reality  cheaper  imitations  of  the 
ancient  goods  woven  expressly  to  sell  in  European  and 
American  markets.  In  many  new  fabrics  that  come  from 
out-of-the-way  parts  of  the  Orient,  the  dyes  and  wool  are 
found  to  be  thoroughly  up  to  the  old  standard,  but  the 
majority  of  importations  are  sadly  inferior  to  what  we  are 
led  to  believe  is  the  characteristic  quality  of  an  oriental  rug. 
The  reputation  of  Persia  rested  on  its  rugs,  and  there  was  at 
one  time  a  law  that  forbade  the  introduction  into  that  country 
of  chemical  agents  to  be  used  as  dyestuffs,  and  any  dyer 
convicted  of  using  aniline  in  his  craft  was  sentenced  to  have 
his  right  hand  cut  off.  Whether  the  law  was  enforced  or  not, 
consignments  of  aniline-dyed  rugs  continued  to  pour  out  of 
the  country.  On  January  1,  1900,  the  Shah  of  Persia  issued 
an  edict,  and  had  it  printed  in  French  as  well  as  in  Persian,  in 
order  that  its  circulation  might  be  satisfactory,  forbidding  the 
use  of  aniline  dyes  in  rugs  and  carpets;  forbidding  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  aniline  dyes  into  the  kingdom  either  in  dry  or  liquid 
form;  forbidding  the  exportation  of  rugs  dyed  by  any  aniline 
process,  and  a  number  of  other  details  all  pertaining  directly 


§8 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


21 


to  the  maintenance  of  the  high  quality  of  Persian  carpets. 
Notwithstanding  all  this,  the  market  is  still  flooded  with 
spurious  imitations  of  antique  rugs  that  have  undoubtedly 
been  woven  by  hand  in  Persia. 

19.  There  is  probably  no  article  of  household  use  of 
which  the  public  is  so  generally  ignorant  as  oriental  rugs  and 
their  imitations.  Rugs  are  classified  under  different  names 
that  usually  indicate  the  city  or  community  from  which  they 
come  rather  than  any  specific  details  regarding  their  manu¬ 
facture.  However,  they  are  recognized  usually  by  details  of 
texture  in  the  wool,  the  character  of  the  knot  employed  to 
tie  it,  the  material  of  the  warp  and  weft,  the  length  of  the 
pile,  etc. 

A  genuine  oriental  rug  is  usually  a  written  page  of 
history.  I  he  design  is  the  development  of  a  symbolism  that 
has  been  handed  from  generation  to  generation,  and  that 
probably  originated  in  Babylon  or  India  many  centuries  ago. 
This  inherited  symbolism  is  the  leading  characteristic  of  all 
oriental  designs,  but  the  application  of  these  designs  to 
modern  service  requires  their  alteration  to  suit  the  mechan¬ 
ical  limitations  of  the  loom,  and  the  designer  can  best  serve  his 
purpose  by  adapting  the  spirit  that  enters  into  these  designs 
rather  than  the  geometrical  construction  or  outline  itself. 

20.  Reproduction  of  Persian  Rugs. — In  Figs.  10,  11, 
and  12  are  shown  three  reproductions  made  directly  from 
the  finest  quality  of  Persian  rugs.  Fig.  10  is  what  is  known 
as  a  Sehna,  which  is  one  of  the  finest  qualities  of  hand¬ 
made  carpets.  The  design  in  the  body  of  this  rug  is  what  is 
known  as  the  Herati”  pattern,  or  more  commonly  the  “fish” 
pattern.  It  varies  in  size  and  method  of  treatment  in  dif¬ 
ferent  forms  of  rugs  and  is  derived  probably  from  ancient 
Chinese  heraldic  devices.  The  “fish”  pattern  is  simple 
enough  in  itself  and  is  admirable  in  its  ground-covering 
qualities,  as  it  works  itself  into  an  even  bloom  that  conveys 
no  definite  idea  of  a  fixed  pattern  but  presents  a  satisfactory 
effect  to  the  eye.  The  beauty  of  rugs  of  this  character  lies 
in  the  subdivisions  of  their  color  scheme,  and  in  this  manner 


22 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


8 


the  three  sections  of  the  ground  are  brought  out  by  changing 
the  color  scheme  of  this  pattern,  which  is  uniform  through¬ 
out  the  entire  body.  In  the  center  medallion  the  colors  are 
particularly  soft,  and  when  looking  at  it  with  partly  closed 
eyes  the  divisions  of  the  pattern  can  be  clearly  studied, 
while  the  colors  melt  into  soft  grays  that  are  almost  a  mono¬ 
tone  tint  and  yet  are  vibrating  with  color. 

In  Fig.  11  is  shown  a  Kermanshah  rug.  The  designs  of 
the  Kermanshah  rugs  run  to  floral  patterns.  The  texture 
is  looser  than  the  average  Persian  rug,  and  the  influence  of 
Turkish  ornament  is  very  apparent.  The  colors  are  rich 
and  in  good  taste,  and  the  effect  of  pattern  is  much  more 
prominent  than  in  the  Sehna  rugs.  The  warp  of  Kermanshah 
rugs  is  occasionally  cotton,  and  the  pile  is  tied  with  a  Turkish 
knot,  showing  the  influence  of  the  latter  country.  The  pal- 
mette  and  rosette  forms  that  enter  into  the  design  are 
characteristic  of  oriental  patterns  and  undoubtedly  have 
been  derived  from  similar  patterns  that  existed  in  antiquity. 

In  Fig.  12  is  a  Feraghan  rug,  which  shows  an  open  or 
spread-out  form  of  the  “fish”  pattern  in  the  corners  of  the 
body.  This,  on  comparison  with  Fig.  10,  will  show  the  effects 
that  can  be  produced  with  this  simple  design  by  changing 
its  color  scheme  and  the  elements  of  its  application.  The 
Feraghan  rug  in  Fig.  12  is  a  modern  rug.  As  in  the  ancient 
examples,  the  “fish”  pattern  was  worked  out  over  the  entire 
center  field,  with  the  exception  of  small  triangular  corner 
pieces,  as  shown  in  this  example.  The  characteristics  of  the 
ancient  pattern  have  been  carried  out.  The  border  is  typical 
of  the  antique  Feraghan  rug,  but  the  solid  red  center  and 
the  medallion  are  modern  introductions  due  probably  to  an 
attempt  to  save  labor  and  produce  in  less  time  and  with  less 
skill  sufficient  rugs  to  supply  the  market. 

21.  American  Wilton  Rugs. — In  Figs.  13,  14,  and  15 
are  shown  three  examples  of  ordinary  Wilton  rugs  of 
American  manufacture,  10  feet  by  12  feet.  They  are  all 
five-frame  fabrics  woven  with  conventional  colors,  namely, 
red,  blue,  gold,  ecru,  and  green.  The  borders  in  each  case 


§8 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


23 


are  three-quarters  of  a  yard  wide,  as  can  be  seen  by  the 
seam,  which  falls  exactly  on  the  inner  edge  and  thereby  is 
entirely  hidden. 

These  three  examples  undoubtedly  owe  their  designs  to 
inspirations  derived  from  oriental  patterns,  but  the  coloring 
and  general  effect  is  far  inferior  to  the  softness  of  the 
Persian  rugs,  as  may  be  seen  by  comparing  any  of  them  with 
Fig.  10.  In  general  effect,  they  lack  the  treatment  of  the 
hand-woven  rug  and  express  emphatically  the  hardness  of 
a  machine-produced  carpet.  The  limited  range  of  color, 
necessitated  by  the  loom,  prevents  that  soft  bloom  that  is 
so  characteristic  of  the  oriental  fabric.  Compare  the  body 
of  Fig.  10  with  its  imitation  in  Fig.  13,  and  observe  how 
the  Herati  pattern  assumes  a  machine-like  and  geometrical 
grouping  in  the  Wilton  rug  that  does  not  exist  in  its  orien¬ 
tal  prototype. 

In  the  finer  grade  of  Wilton  rugs,  many  colors  are  intro¬ 
duced  by  planting,  and  the  effect  is  thereby  much  improved, 
but  this  is  a  characteristic  that  is  affected  by  style  in  carpets 
and  varies  with  seasons.  At  the  same  time,  designs  that 
present  the  softness  of  bloom  characteristic  of  oriental 
fabrics  are  not  popular  owing,  probably,  to  the  fact  that 
recent  events  in  the  world’s  history  have  filled  the  popular 
mind  with  a  desire  for  brilliancy  and  loudness  of  color.  In 
rug  design,  as  in  everything  else,  public  taste  is  affected  by 
entirely  outside  influences,  and  the  relations  of  this  country 
with  some  foreign  power,  be  it  oriental  or  occidental,  are 
likely  to  bring  some  particular  style  into  popularity  and 
thereby  affect  all  design. 

22.  In  Figs.  14  and  15  will  be  found  many  forms  similar 
to  those  in  the  oriental  patterns,  Figs.  11  and  12.  The 
borders  and  medallions  in  the  center  appear  to  have  been 
copied  directly  from  some  oriental  example,  although  they 
may  have  been  worked  out  from  several  sources  of  inspira¬ 
tion,  but  they  lack  entirely  the  spirit  of  the  original  fabric 
and  fail  to  present  that  delicacy  of  tone  that  is  the  chief 
beauty  of  a  Persian  rug. 


24 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


8 


The  designer  of  modern  rugs  and  carpets  must  admit  that 
with  the  means  at  his  command  the  original  effects  cannot 
be  successfully  imitated,  and  while  a  conscientious  study  of 
oriental  patterns  is  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  designer,  he 
should  not  be  led  to  the  extreme  of  endeavoring  to  repro¬ 
duce  them,  as  the  most  successful  efforts  in  this  line  must 
necessarily  fall  below  the  originals.  But  a  proper  adapta¬ 
tion  of  this  system  of  space  filling  is  far  superior  to  the 
gaudy  naturalistic  floor  coverings  that  are  so  frequently  seen 
in  the  modern  carpet  store. 


OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM 
DESIGNING 


PRINTING  OILCLOTHS 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  Preparing  the  Blocks. — In  Fig.  1  are  shown  four 
blocks  of  an  eight-color  pattern.  All  the  forms  that  are 
to  be  represented  in  one  color  in  the  finished  design  are 
tiaced  on  one  block.  The  superfluous  wood  is  then  cut 
away,  leaving  the  desired  form  in  relief.  This  operation  is 


Fig.  1 


then  repeated  on  another  block  for  another  color,  and  so  on 
throughout  the  pattern  until  each  detail  of  the  design  is 
provided  for. 

Where  the  colors  come  together,  the  edges  are  apt  to  be 
blurred  and  ragged;  therefore,  outline  blocks  are  prepared, 
usually  in  metal.  These  are  printed  last  and  even  up  the 
rough  edges,  as  they  contain  only  the  outlines  of  the  figures. 
They  give  a  finish  to  all  the  forms  and  make  them  stand  out 

For  notice  of  copyright,  see  page  immediately  following  the  title  page 


2 


OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING  §9 


Fig.  2 


§9  OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING 


3 


sharply  and  clearly.  It  does  not  necessarily  follow  that 
these  outline  blocks  are  a  different  color  from  the  colors 
printed  on  the  design.  Sometimes  they  make  a  black  outline 
around  certain,  details,  and  at  other  times  they  are  the  same 
color  as  one  of  the  two  adjacent  forms  that  they  even  up.  It 
is  necessary,  however,  for  the  designer  to  bear  in  mind  that 
an  outline  block  must  be  cut  for  every  design  of  oilcloth, 
whether  it  is  executed  in  two  colors  or  ten.  A  two-color 
design  requires  three  blocks,  the  third  block  being  an  outline 
block.  Fig.  2  shows  several  examples  of  outline  blocks. 

The  matrix,  or  mold,  for  these  metal  blocks  is  made  by 
burning  the  lines,  or  forms,  into  a  wooden  block  to  a  depth 
of  about  1%  inch,  by  means  of  tools  heated  by  electricity. 
Probably,  in  time,  metal  blocks  will  entirely  supersede 
wooden  ones.  The  matrix  having  been  made,  any  number 
of  castings  can  be  taken  from  it,  affording  duplicate  blocks 
for  the  different  printing  machines,  and  permitting  the  same 
pattern  to  be  printed  on  different  machines  at  the  same  time, 
while  old  or  worn-out  blocks  can  easily  be  replaced. 


THE  PRINTING  PROCESS 

2.  Hand  Printing. — When  oilcloth  is  printed  by  hand, 
the  design  is  usually  manipulated  by  two  men.  The  pre¬ 
pared  jute  burlap,  which  forms  the  backing,  is  rolled  about 
a  rod  at  one  end  of  a  long,  low  table  beside  which  the  two 
men  stand.  Immediately  behind  them  is  a  rack  to  hold  the 
different  blocks  required  to  print  the  pattern  and  slabs  or 
pads  containing  the  different  colors.  The  color,  which  con¬ 
sists  of  oil  paint,  is  spread  evenly  over  the  pad  and  the 
blocks  are  lifted  from  the  rack  and  pressed  on  the  color 
pad,  and  then  transferred  to  the  surface  of  the  cloth  and 
pressed  firmly  into  place.  In  this  manner,  each  successive 
color  is  applied  to  the  design  until  all  but  the  outline  blocks 
have  been  used. 

At  this  stage  of  the  work,  a  plain  mash  block,  as  it  is 
called,  is  laid  over  the  surface  of  the  oilcloth  and  heavy 
pressure  exerted,  which  forces  the  design  and  color  firmly 


4 


OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING 


9 


against  the  fabric.  The  use  of  the  mash  block  also  tends  to 
spread  the  color  somewhat  and  destroy  the  evenness  of  the 
edges,  but  the  application  of  the  outline  block  trues  up  these 
edges  and  makes  the  forms  clear-cut.  On  the  sides  of  each 
block  are  fastened  small  wooden  projections  and  a  screw 
head  to  act  as  a  guide  in  printing  the  pattern,  so  that  each 
form  will  fall  in  its  proper  place. 

When  one  set  of  impressions  is  complete,  the  fabric  is 
moved  forwards,  on  the  table,  a  proper  distance  and  the 
next  section  is  printed;  and  so  the  operation  is  repeated 
over  each  section  of  cloth,  until  the  end  of  the  roll  is  reached. 
The  printed  cloth  as  it  proceeds  from  the  end  of  the  table  is 
carried  over  long,  low  drying  racks,  where  it  remains  for 
several  days  until  the  surface  is  perfectly  hard  and  dry. 

3.  Machine  Printing. — Oilcloth  printed  by  machinery 
is  similar  in  process  of  manufacture  to  that  made  by  hand, 
and  there  is  so  little  difference  in  the  quality  of  the  finished 
fabric  that  it  is  likely  that  machine  work  will  supersede  hand 
work  entirely  in  the  near  future. 

In  the  oilcloth-printing  machine,  the  material  is,  as  before, 
passed  over  a  long,  low  table  with  a  metal  top.  Above  this, 
the  different  printing  blocks  are  set  at  regular  intervals,  each 
with  a  roller  carrying  color  immediately  beneath  it.  The 
rollers  revolve  constantly  in  a  trough  containing  the  paint, 
and  as  the  blocks  are  raised  from  the  cloth  after  impressing 
their  design,  these  color  rollers  pass  under  them  and  distrib¬ 
ute  the  color  across  their  surfaces.  While  this  is  being 
done  the  fabric  moves  forwards  the  proper  distance  on  the 
table,  so  that  in  each  case  the  impression  made  by  one 
block  falls  into  position  to  receive  the  proper  impression 
from  the  next  block  beyond.  Thus,  the  blank  fabric  fed  into 
one  end  of  the  machine  from  a  large  roll  emerges  from  the 
other  end  entirely  printed,  the  outline  block  being  the  last 
of  the  entire  series,  as  in  hand  printing. 

The  blocks  for  machine  printing  are  much  larger  than  the 
blocks  for  hand  printing  as  they  extend  the  full  width  of  the 
material,  and  in  this  way  very  large  orders  may  be  turned 


§9  OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING 


5 


out  in  a  very  short  length  of  time.  Hand  work,  however,  is 
still  used  where  samples  are  being  made  up  or  new  goods 
are  being  prepared  for  the  market. 

4.  Inlay  Work. — The  only  difference  between  ordinary 
linoleum  and  oilcloth  lies  in  the  preparation  of  the  fabric  on 
which  the  design  is  printed.  However,  the  linoleum,  known 
as  mosaic,  or  inlay,  wherein  the  design  extends  all  the  way 


Fig.  3 


through  the  goods,  differs  from  oilcloth  in  the  method  used 
in  its  printing.  The  fabric  will  therefore  wear  and  preserve 
continuity  of  design  until  the  prepared  surface  is  worn  clear 
through. 

Mosaic  linoleum  is  prepared  by  first  cutting  pieces  of 
colored  linoleum  pulp,  by  means  of  dies,  and  arranging  them 


6 


OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING  §9 


side  by  side  on  the  raw  jute  burlap,  thus  forming  a  sort  of 
tile  pattern  in  different  colors.  The  burlap  and  pulp  are 
passed  under  a  heavy  heated  plate,  which  is  brought  down 
on  them  with  a  tremendous  pressure,  literally  welding  the 
parts  into  one  homogeneous  mass  and  uniting  them  perfectly 
with  the  burlap  backing. 

A  process  producing  similar  results  is  one  wherein  the  dry 
pulp  in  granular  form  is  sprinkled  on  the  burlap  backing 
through  a  series  of  stenciled  plates  or  patterns,  after  which 
it  is  submitted  to  heavy  pressure  and  heated  as  before,  and 
thus  becomes  a  solid  fabric. 

Inlay  linoleum  is  much  more  expensive  than  painted  goods, 
on  account  of  the  intricacies  of  its  manufacture,  but  it  has 
many  advantages,  as  the  pattern  will  not  disappear  until  the 
burlap  is  worn  through,  and  this  will  require  a  much  longer 
time  than  the  simple  burlap  prepared  with  paint.  The  inlay 
linoleum  is  not  so  attractive,  however,  to  the  designer,  for 
the  limitations  of  the  present  method  of  manufacture  impose 
such  decided  restrictions  that  one  can  work  out  nothing  but 
very  simple  patterns.  Fig.  3  illustrates  four  patterns  of 
inlay  linoleum  that  show  precisely  to  what  extent  designs 
can  be  varied  in  this  method  of  manufacture. 


THE  DESIGNS 

5.  Styles  of  Patterns. — There  is  practically  no  limit  to 
the  kind  of  pattern  that  the  manufacturer  of  oilcloth  and 
linoleum  can  successfully  reproduce  in  printing.  Sample 
books  from  the  different  factories  show  a  great  variety  of 
styles,  from  the  simplest  diaper  pattern  in  two  or  three  colors 
to  elaborate  floral  scrolls  in  imitation  of  wallpaper  and  carpet 
designs,  printed  in  six  or  eight  colors,  as  clumsy  and  ungrace¬ 
ful  as  they  are  inappropriate. 

In  Fig.  4  four  of  these  elaborate  patterns  are  shown, 
but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  their  appearance  is 
greatly  improved  by  photographic  reproduction,  as  the 
varying  contrasts  of  color  and  shiny  surface  of  the  paint  are 
thereby  lost.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  simple  diaper 


§9  OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING 


/ 


Fig.  4 


8 


OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING  §9 


Fig.  5 


§9  OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING 


9 


patterns  shown  in  Fig.  5  are 
far  more  suitable  for  this 
class  of  work  than  the  elab¬ 
orations  shown  in  Fig.  4. 

The  simple  mosaic  work 
represented  in  Fig.  6  at  (b), 
(c) ,  and  ( d )  is  a  very  pop¬ 
ular  style  of  design;  this 
illustration  shows  what  a 
great  variety  in  so  simple  a 
pattern  can  be  obtained  by 
the  judicious  use  of  proper 
colors.  Of  these  designs  ( a ) 
and  ( c )  were  executed  by 
Philadelphia  manufacturers, 
but  ( b )  is  the  work  of  a 
British  firm. 

Almost  every  manufac¬ 
turer  runs  a  pattern  similar 
to  these,  for  the  reason  that 
it  is  one  of  the  best  “sellers” 
ever  produced,  and  for  a 
similar  reason  the  simple  tile 
pattern  illustrated  in  Fig.  6 
( c )  can  be  found  among  the 
products  of  nearly  all  man¬ 
ufacturers.  It  is  a  well-known 
fact  in  the  trade  that  when¬ 
ever  a  given  pattern  attains 
an  unusual  sale,  all  the  enter¬ 
prising  manufacturers  will 
copy  it,  making  but  slight 
modifications,  in  order  to 
each  get  his  share  of  the 
trade. 

The  oilcloth  designer  never 
knows  when  his  pattern  is 
going  to  make  a  hit.  He 


(d) 

Fig.  6 


10  OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING 


9 


may  be  well  pleased  with  his  design  and  feel  that  it  is 
bound  to  meet  the  public  approval,  but  his  opinion  must 
not  only  be  assured  by  the  public  themselves  but  also  by 
the  majority  of  the  buyers  in  the  manufacturing  establish¬ 
ment  where  he  proposes  to  sell  his  design,  as  every  person 
connected  with  the  manufacture  of  the  goods,  from  the 
superintendent  to  the  order  clerk,  will  have  a  personal 
opinion  as  to  the  value  of  the  design  and  prophesy  its  suc¬ 
cess  or  failure  according  to  his  own  ideas. 

6.  Catering  to  the  Public. — Widely  different  patterns 
frequently  attain  remarkable  successes  and  sell  in  larger 
quantities  than  other  designs  that  are  on  the  market  at  the 
same  time,  thus  necessitating  the  manufacture  of  millions  of 
yards  of  one  pattern  throughout  a  period  of  several  years. 
It  is  naturally  the  desire  of  manufacturers  to  become  possess¬ 
ors  of  patterns  that  please  the  public  in  this  manner,  as  it 
simplifies  matters  for  them  materially.  It  is  the  aim  of 
every  designer  to  prepare  patterns  that  will  be  good  sellers, 
and  to  avoid  submission  of  patterns  that  are  not  likely  to 
sell  well.  The  successful  oilcloth  designers  whose  goods 
are  most  sought  after,  are  those  whose  patterns  most  fre¬ 
quently  attract  the  public  and  cause  a  sufficient  run  of  one 
kind  of  goods  to  make  it  worth  while  to  buy  the  designs 
and  prepare  them  for  printing. 

Designers,  manufacturers,  and  salesmen  all  admit  that 
they  have  never  been  able  to  analyze  -the  public  taste 
sufficiently  to  determine  just  what  the  qualities  are  that  cause 
a  pattern  to  be  popular.  Fortunately,  however,  for  the 
designer,  one  thing  is  certain,  and  that  is  that  the  public  is 
very  fastidious  and  demands  a  large  number  of  designs  from 
which  to  select,  and  consequently  the  manufacturer  is  making 
up  new  designs  and  getting  out  additional  sample  books 
every  season.  The  poor  sellers  are  withdrawn  from  the 
market  and  the  good  sellers  are  pushed,  and  the  spaces  in 
the  sample  books  left  by  the  removed  examples  are  filled 
with  new  designs  that  the  manufacturer  hopes  will  bring 
better  returns.  Occasionally,  the  same  pattern  is  printed  in 


9  OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING  11 


many  different  colors,  in  order  that  the  public  may  not  be 
confined  to  one  scheme  of  coloring. 

7.  Principles  Governing  Floor-Covering  Designs. 
The  artistic  principles  governing  designs  for  floor  coverings 
apply  to  oilcloth  and  linoleum  quite  as  much  as  to  carpet, 
mosaic  work,  and  parquetry.  Oilcloth  designing  affords  a 
most  excellent  opportunity  for  the  application  of  these 
principles,  as  the  limitations  of  its  manufacture  and  the 
space  usually  allotted  for  the  repeat,  being  simply  9  inches, 
tend  to  prevent  the  designer  from  producing  coarse  and 
sprawling  patterns.  This  should  be  particularly  considered, 
as  the  tendency  among  some  carpet  designers  is  far  too 
strong  in  this  direction. 

The  rules  governing  a  design  for  floor  covering  are  few. 
First  of  all,  the  design  should  be  such  that  the  floor  appears 
flat.  Any  tendency  to  show  an  undulating  or  coarsely  inter¬ 
woven  element  is  not  only  out  of  place,  but  annoying.  Any 
attempt  to  show  a  modeled  or  rounded  surface  or  lumpiness, 
or  arrangement  of  colors  that  produces  the  effect  that  some 
parts  are  lower  than  others,  is  bad  in  design  and  will  surely 
condemn  the  goods.  In  a  floor  covering,  the  feeling  of 
stability  is  paramount,  as  one  does  not  wish  to  feel  that 
there  are  even  imaginary  obstacles  in  the  way  or  unknown 
depths  into  which  one  might  fall  through  jagged  holes. 

This  principle  is  constantly  violated  by  designers  of 
carpets;  therefore,  we  frequently  see  patterns  of  floor  cover¬ 
ings  representing  large  bunches  of  elaborately  modeled 
flowers  and  leaves,  or  occasionally  animals  and  landscapes, 
so  realistically  treated  that  one  would  almost  suppose  the 
designer  was  trying  to  impress  the  user  and  observer  that 
they  were  intended  to  be  hung  on  the  wall  as  decorative 
elements  rather  than  spread  on  the  floor  as  utilitarian 
details.  The  effect  that  a  pattern  impresses  on  one  in  a 
dimly  lighted  room  when  he  views  it  with  partly  closed 
eyes  is  almost  identical  with  the  constant  impression  that 
is  unconsciously  produced  on  us  at  all  times  when  the  object 
is  in  our  full  field  of  vision,  even  though  we  do  not  really 


12  OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING 


9 


look  at  the  object  at  the  time.  If  one  walk  across  a  dimly 
lighted  room  where  one  of  these  distracting  patterns  covers 
the  floor  and  if  in  so  doing  he  partly  closes  his  eyes,  a 
feeling  of  uneasiness  and  uncertainty  immediately  takes 
possession  of  him.  The  effect  is  not  restful,  and  the  pat¬ 
tern  is  therefore  not  a  good  one  to  have  around.  If  this 
test  be  tried  on  such  ideal  floor  coverings  as  the  best 
oriental  rugs  or  good  mosaic  and  tile  effects,  there  is  not 
the  slightest  uneasiness;  and,  even  though  the  pattern 
possess  decided  contrasts  in  light  and  shade  or  color,  there 
will  be  a  feeling  of  restfulness  as  one  melts  into  the  other 
and  produces  a  delightful  unity  of  effect.  Floor  coverings 
that  stand  such  a  test  as  this  also  fill  another  and  important 
office,  namely,  that  of  being  a  proper  background  for  objects 
in  the  room,  such  as  furniture,  etc. 

8.  A  most  important  part  in  the  general  effect  is  pro¬ 
duced  by  color,  although  in  the  manufacture  of  oilcloths 
this  detail  is  practically  taken  out  of  the  designer’s  hands  as 
the  manufacturer  is  likely  to  accept  a  design  executed  in 
one  set  of  colors  and  print  it  entirely  different.  There 
should,  however,  be  a  definite  intention  on  the  part  of  the 
designer  in  the  color  scheme  of  his  design,  and  he  must 
determine  whether  he  wants  to  produce  the  general  effect 
of  a  neutralized  bloom  or  blending  of  all  the  colors,  or  to 
contrast  some  strongly  with  others;  and  the  fact  that  the 
designer  cannot  control  perfectly  the  colors  that  his  design 
is  to  be  printed  in  should  make  him  all  the  more  careful 
of  making  the  design  interesting  in  point  of  form  and 
arrangement. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  designs  such  as  those  illustrated 
in  Fig.  6  do  not  violate  any  of  the  rules  set  forth  for  floor 
coverings,  although  they  are  great  sellers.  It  cannot  be 
argued  from  this  that  the  public  is  any  more  familiar  with  the 
rules  for  floor  coverings  than  it  is  with  other  details  of  fine 
art,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  a  sufficient  number  of  the 
public  have  that  feeling  of  uneasiness  in  the  presence  of  a 
bad  pattern  to  cause  the  rush  in  favor  of  the  better  goods. 


§9  OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING  13 


There  is  nothing  in  these  designs  to  positively  recommend 
them  in  beauty  of  color  or  design,  and  their  good  quali¬ 
ties  are  of  a  negative  character;  that  is,  they  possess  no 
forms  of  sufficient  importance  to  make  one  stop  and  think 
whether  or  not  he  likes  them.  A  shrewd  housekeeper  buys 
them  because  they  are  not  loud  or  offensive,  they  do  not 
show  dust,  and  they  are  easily  patched.  There  is  another 
class  of  buyers,  smaller  in  number  than  the  former,  that 
want  a  design  that  is  positively  interesting  in  form  and 
color;  some  of  these  rush  to  the  elaborate  floral  effects 
illustrated  in  Fig.  4,  while  others  satisfy  their  desires  and 
taste  by  a  design  that  fulfils  all  the  requirements  of  a  good 
floor  covering.  It  is  the  public  that  buys,  and  the  manufac¬ 
turer  must  prepare  goods  to  suit  all  classes. 

9.  Classes  of  Designs. — The  designer  must  be  able  to 
produce  three  classes  of  designs:  (1)  designs  that  are  good 
floor  covering,  pleasing  in  form,  and  harmonious  in  the 
theory  of  design,  to  suit  the  public  that  is  educated  and 
knows  what  a  design  should  be;  (2)  where  elaborate  floral 
devices  in  bunches  or  strewn  in  garlands  form  the  prin¬ 
cipal  theme  in  loud  and  contrasting  colors,  that  a  certain 
number  of  uneducated  people  can  best  get  their  money’s 
worth  in  noise  and  brilliancy;  and  (3)  a  class  of  design 
for  the  great  middle  class  that  knows  these  florid  and 
ostentatious  designs  are  in  bad  taste,  but  that  does  not 
feel  itself  equal  to  the  appreciation  of  the  first  lot  and 
therefore  must  be  content  with  simple,  inoffensive  patterns 
like  Fig.  5,  whose  main  virtue  lies  in  the  fact  that  even 
though  one  cannot  say  they  are  good,  he  cannot  say  they 
are  very  bad. 

The  majority  of  oilcloth  patterns  are  made  by  public 
designers  or  designers  for  the  trade,  a  large  number  of  whom 
are  women.  Some  manufacturers  employ  special  designers, 
but  even  in  such  cases  they  buy  of  outside  designers  when 
the  designs  suit  their  purpose.  The  price  of  an  oilcloth 
design  is  standard  —  $10.  If  the  manufacturer  wants  a 
design  at  all,  he  pays  $10  for  it,  no  matter  whether  the 


14  OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING  §9 


designer  be  a  beginner  or  one  well  known.  If  he  does  not 
want  it,  he  has  his  reasons  and  will  not  take  it  at  any  price. 

10.  Preparing  tlie  Design. — Designs  should  be  made 
on  a  good  quality  of  white  drawing  paper,  and  should  exactly 
repeat  within  a  9-inch  square.  There  may  be  more  than  one 
repeat  in  this  square,  but  no  matter  how  many  there  are  the 
above  conditions  must  be  fulfilled,  or  the  design  cannot  be 
reproduced.  The  drawing  paper  must  be  carefully  stretched, 
and  when  the  design  is  entirely  completed,  the  paper  should 
be  cut  from  the  board,  leaving  a  1-inch  margin  or  blank  on 
the  lower  and  right-hand  sides,  but  should  be  trimmed  close 
to  the  pattern  on  the  other  two  sides.  This  is  done  in  order 
that  the  prospective  purchaser  may  view  the  pattern  in  his 
double  mirror,  which  shows  a  complete  set  of  four  repeats 
surrounded  by  a  white  border. 

Every  designer  should  have  a  similar  mirror  for  testing 
his  patterns.  It  consists  of  two  pieces  of  looking  glass 
arranged  at  right  angles,  so  that  when  the  design  is  placed  in 
the  angle  it  may  be  seen  repeated  in  each  direction.  The 
mirror  is  also  useful  for  the  construction  of  certain  geomet¬ 
rical  units  used  in  reproduction,  as  a  number  of  remarkable 
forms  can  be  obtained  by  arranging  a  few  abstract  forms  in 
the  angle  between  the  two  glasses. 

11.  The  colors  used  in  designs  may  be  checked  off  on 
the  margin  at  the  upper  right-hand  side,  but  the  little  blocks 
containing  these  color  checks  should  be  free  from  the  edges 
of  the  design.  A  1-inch  to  1-inch  block  for  each  color  is 
sufficient,  and  black  and  white  count  as  colors  and  must 
appear  in  the  scale. 

Usually,  one  color  is  employed  for  the  outline,  but  any 
color  or  black  or  white  may  be  used.  If  two  colors  are  used 
in  the  outline,  let  it  be  for  some  good  reason  and  explain  the 
reason,  or  the  block  cutter  will  probably  reduce  the  design  to 
one  color  in  order  to  save  the  cost  of  the  extra  block.  The 
outline  is  necessary  to  clean  up  the  printing,  and  it  fre¬ 
quently  helps  the  appearance  of  the  design  on  paper.  There¬ 
fore,  in  finishing  up  a  design,  care  should  be  taken  as  to  the 


9  OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING  15 


color  and  placing  of  the  outlines,  in  order  to  get  the  best 
effect  possible. 

In  Fig.  7  is  shown  a  design,  drawn  by  a  student,  that  is 
not  properly  outlined.  The  large  circles  are  outlined  but 
the  cross  form  is  not,  and  in  Fig.  8  the  simple  rosette  in 
the  center  is  outlined,  but  the  interlacing  circles  are  not. 


Fig.  7 


Where  it  is  desirable  to  avoid  the  effect  of  an  outline,  it 
can  be  applied  in  the  same  color  as  the  form  around 
which  it  is  placed,  thereby  fulfilling  the  printer’s  require¬ 
ments  of  a  clean  edge  but  not  appearing  in  the  finished 
goods.  In  Fig.  9,  however,  it  will  be  observed  that  all  the 
outlining  is  properly  considered  and  that  each  color  in 


16  OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING  §9 


juxtaposition  with  another  color  is  separated  therefrom  by  a 
black  outline. 

The  outline  should  be  firm  and  well  considered.  It  must 
neither  be  thin  and  wiry  nor  thick  and  clumsy  so  as  to  be 
misconstrued  into  a  detail  of  design.  Oilcloth  design  does 
not  admit  of  minute  details.  Every  element  introduced  must 
be  large  enough  to  admit  of  a  strong  outline,  or  it  cannot 


Fig.  8 


be  properly  printed.  However,  where  designs  are  made  for 
inlay  linoleum,  outlines  are  useless  and  out  of  place. 

12.  Colors. — -In  all  printed  fabrics,  whether  wallpapers, 
oilcloths,  or  linoleums,  the  manufacturer  desires  to  get  a 
maximum  effect  with  a  minimum  cost  of  production,  and  as 
each  additional  block  means  additional  cost  it  is  certainly 


9  OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING  17 


important  that  as  few  colors  as  possible  be  made  to  serve 
the  given  purpose.  All  other  things  being  equal,  the 
designer  that  can  handle  his  designs  in  four  colors  and 
produce  the  appearance  of  six  by  skilful  repetition  or  juxta¬ 
position  in  dots  and  lines  stands  the  best  chance  of  dis¬ 
posing  of  his  work.  On  the  other  hand,  if  a  manufacturer 
takes  strongly  to  a  design  he  is  likely  to  spare  no  pains  or 


Fig.  9 

expense  to  reproduce  it  satisfactorily,  even  making  two 
blocks  at  times  for  the  printing  of  one  color  if,  by  so  doing, 
a  better  effect  can  be  obtained. 

In  color  effects  for  linoleum  design,  the  golden  brown  of 
the  linoleum  pulp  is  made  use  of  very  frequently  as  the 
fundamental  tone  of  the  design.  This  color  can  be  imitated 


18  OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING 


9 


on  the  palette  by  a  mixture  of  burnt  umber  and  raw  sienna. 
Considerable  variety  of  effect  in  color  and  in  texture  may  be 
obtained  by  working  over  this  ground  color  by  hatchings  or 
by  representing  on  it  geometrical  forms  or  spots. 

In  Fig.  10  is  shown  a  popular  pattern  that  is  composed 
entirely  of  lines  and  spots  printed  in  five  colors  on  a  ground 
of  linoleum  color,  which  is,  in  reality,  the  color  of  the  pre¬ 
pared  and  painted  burlap.  This  background  of  linoleum 
color  forms  the  principal  color  scheme  in  the  circular  spots 
and  also  shows  around  the  smaller  spots,  which  only  partly 


Fig.  10 


cover  the  spaces  formed  by  the  intersections  of  the  cross¬ 
ing  lines. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  this  pattern  has  been  a  good 
seller  and  therefore  a  profitable  one  to  the  manufacturer,  it 
is  best  as  a  general  rule  to  avoid  preparing  designs  that 
introduce  large  circular  forms.  Such  patterns  seldom  take 
with  the  public,  and  the  fact  that  this  pattern  did  so  is  an 
exception  to  the  general  rule,  and  goes  to  show  the  uncer¬ 
tainty  of  popularity  in  designs.  Even  though  the  designer 
might  succeed  in  creating  another  design  based  on  circles 
that  would  be  destined  to  meet  with  public  favor,  he  will 
experience  difficulty  in  getting  the  manufacturer  to  accept 


§9  OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING  19 


it  on  account  of  his  prejudice  against  circular  forms.  There¬ 
fore,  in  suggesting  to  the  designer  that  he  avoid  circular 
forms  in  his  designs,  a  purely  business  consideration  is 
set  before  him  and  not  one  based  on  any  theory  of  art 
or  design. 

Designs  like  those  shown  in  Fig.  7  appeal  strongly  to  the 
student,  as,  by  an  interlacing  of  circular  forms,  he  is  able 
to  produce  interesting  geometrical  combinations  that  work 
themselves  out  with  little  mental  effort.  This  style  of 
design  is  rapidly  drawn,  and  the  application  of  other  circular 
forms  to  fill  the  larger  and  intervening  spaces  is  readily 
suggested  by  the  character  of  the  space  to  be  covered. 
However,  the  design  shown  in  Fig.  8,  though  still  based  on 
the  circle,  is  better  in  market  value,  as  the  circle  is  broken 
by  its  geometrical  combinations  with  straight  lines.  While 
the  pattern  itself  is  not  greatly  unlike  that  shown  in  Fig.  6, 
the  ingenious  interlacing  of  circles  adds  to  the  interest  and 
helps  to  overcome  the  prejudice  that  is  naturally  felt  against 
circular  forms.  In  Fig.  9,  the  circular  forms  are  not  objection¬ 
able  at  all.  There  being  two  sizes  of  them  prevents  the 
predominance  of  the  larger  circle,  and  the  happy  relations 
of  the  colors  relative  to  the  background  and  geometrical 
figures  reduces  the  entire  design  to  one  of  color  effect,  rather 
than  geometrical  combination. 

13.  Figs.  7,  8,  and  9  were  made  by  students  working  on 
practically  the  same  problem;  that  is,  an  oilcloth  design 
based  on  circles  in  combination  with  geometrical  forms. 
These  three  designs  illustrate  how  three  different  designers 
can  draw  three  separate  ideas  from  the  same  material,  and 
it  is  not  unreasonable  to  say  that  the  relative  value  of  these 
designs  is  exactly  proportional  to  the  amount  of  study  and 
brain  work  the  designer  has  put  into  his  drawing. 

In  Fig.  7,  the  designer  has  attacked  the  problem  by 
swinging  together  a  number  of  circles  to  cover  his  space 
and  filling  in  the  space  that  they  failed  to  cover  with  a 
simple  geometrical  form.  He  did  not  consider  that  the 
average  manufacturer  is  opposed  to  designs  based  on  coarse 


20  OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING  §9 


circles,  and  therefore  the  circular  element  in  his  design  is 
the  most  prominent. 

In  Fig.  8,  the  designer  has  evidently  considered  the  fact 
that  the  manufacturer  is  opposed  to  circular  forms  and  has 
endeavored  to  disguise  his  circular  forms  by  breaking  them 
with  simple  interlacings  where  they  intersect.  He  has  failed, 
however,  to  disguise  them  satisfactorily,  because  the  circu¬ 
lar  forms  on  this  design  are  red  and  the  background  against 
which  they  appear  is  green.  By  this  strong  contrast  the 
conspicuousness  of  the  form  is  increased,  and  although 
the  design  is  better  and  shows  more  care  and  thought  than 
Fig.  7,  it  is  still  too  evident  that  the  circle  is  the  funda¬ 
mental  principle  of  its  construction. 

In  Fig.  9,  the  considerations  are  entirely  different;  the 
designer  has  evidently  carefully  thought  over  his  problem. 
According  to  the  problem,  he  must  use  circles  and  he  may  use 
other  geometrical  forms.  He  knows  that  the  manufacturer 
is  opposed  to  circular  forms  and  attempts  to  disguise  them. 
Large  circles  tangent  to  the  small  circles  are  used,  with 
intervening  spaces  filled  with  rectangular  forms,  the  outlines 
of  the  rectangular  forms  being  composed  of  arcs  of  broken 
circles.  Everywhere  throughout  the  design  is  the  evidence 
of  variety  and  contrast  of  curve,  so  that  the  attention  is 
distracted  from  the  circular  forms  in  the  general  effect  of 
the  whole.  Having  accomplished  this,  the  designer  has  evi¬ 
dently  given  considerable  thought  to  his  color  combinations 
and  has  been  careful  that  while  the  adjacent  colors  harmonize 
satisfactorily  they  do  not  contrast  so  strongly  as  to  give 
undue  evidence  to  the  predominance  of  the  circle;  and 
where  the  circular  form  is  conspicuous,  it  is  not  too  large 
nor  too  prominent  to  appear  to  dominate  the  design. 

It  is  interesting  also  to  note  in  connection  with  these 
three  designs  the  fact  that  was  pointed  out  in  Art.  11, 
namely,  that  Figs.  7  and  8  are  not  properly  outlined,  while 
Fig.  9  is.  The  designer  that  best  understood  the  condi¬ 
tions  of  the  problem  was  the  one  that  was  most  careful 
to  execute  his  design  not  only  in  accordance  with  the 
limitations  of  the  problem,  but  in  full  accordance  with  the 


Fig.  11 

modifications,  to  print  in  the  geometrical  manner  required 
for  oilcloth  and  linoleum.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind, 
however,  that  in  borrowing  forms  and  ideas  from  his¬ 
toric  ornament  one  must  be  careful  in  his  selection, 
as  symbols  and  elements  may  be  taken  that  are  highly 
unsuited  to  the  design  of  floor  coverings.  We  find  much  in 


§9  OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING  21 

limitations  of  the  printing  machinery  and  the  demands  of 
the  manufacturer. 

14.  Sources  of  Ideas  for  Designs. — In  historic  orna¬ 
ment,  much  profit  can  be  derived  from  a  careful  study  of 
diaper  patterns,  particularly  those  characteristic  of  the 
Oriental  and  Gothic  styles,  as  these  styles  are  based  on 
geometrical  principles,  and  therefore  well  suited,  with  slight 


22  OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING  §9 


the  history  of  ornament  associated  with  religious  ideas,  and 
throughout  all  time  the  greatest  perfection  in  ornament  has 
been  in  some  way  associated  with  some  intellectual  concep¬ 
tion  of  a  religious  idea.  For  instance,  it  is  a  well-known 
fact  that  the  cross  emblematic  of  Christianity  enters  largely 
into  historic  wall  decorations  in  the  Gothic  style.  This 
should  be  most  carefully  used  in  oilcloth  design,  and  must 
surely  be  of  such  a  form  as  not  to  suggest  the  slightest 
symbolism,  for  one  large  class  of  buyers  would  reject  it  as  a 
symbol  of  Christianity,  while  another  large  class  would 
reject  it  as  too  sacred  to  walk  on. 

It  is  always  possible  to  create  new  designs  based  on  well- 
known  arrangements  of  geometrical  lines,  and  the  combina¬ 
tion  of  geometrical  forms  and  severely  conventionalized 
floral  forms  may  produce  an  endless  variety  of  design  com¬ 
bined  with  a  large  degree  of  originality. 

Fig.  11  is  a  design,  by  a  student,  based  on  simple  tangent 
circles  cleverly  broken  by  severely  conventionalized  leaf 
forms.  It  requires  but  little  study  to  observe  that  this 
design  is  strongly  Gothic  in  feeling,  and  but  a  variation  of 
many  Gothic  diapers  exhibited  in  the  mural  paintings  of  the 
Decorated  Period. 

Close  adherence  to  geometrical  diaper  patterns  will  pre¬ 
vent  the  student  from  getting  far  astray  in  oilcloth  design. 
Sprawling  scrolls  and  attempts  at  naturalism,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  4  {a)  and  (b),  should  always  be  avoided,  for  even  though 
one  of  these  designs  is  occasionally  put  out  by  a  manufac¬ 
turer,  they  are  all  bad  for  a  student  to  strive  for  as  they  are 
inappropriate  and  inartistic;  and  despite  the  vulgarity  of 
public  taste,  the  proper  and  artistic  forms  are  the  ones  that 
survive.  Naturalistic  renderings  of  floral  and  vegetable 
forms  suggest  a  delicacy  of  handling  entirely  out  of  harmony 
with  printing  in  heavy  oil  paints.  The  principal  aim  of  the 
purchaser  is  to  secure  a  design  that  is  interesting  and  will 
wear  well;  the  finer  the  lines  the  more  the  design  will  be 
affected  by  wear,  and  the  longer  the  design  wears  the  more 
popular  will  be  its  sale;  therefore,  the  more  successful  will 
be  the  designer. 


§9  OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING  23 


Adaptations  of  the  forms  so  popular  in  L’Art  Nouveau 
have  found  their  way  into  oilcloth  design,  but  have  not 
attained  any  great  popularity  in  this  field.  It  is  probable 
that  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  character  of  this  style  is 
not  yet  thoroughly  understood  by  the  public,  and  that  the 
oilcloth  designer  has  not  yet  been  able  to  reconcile  it  properly 
with  the  limitations  of  oilcloth  manufacture.  It  is  to  be 
hoped,  however,  that  this  will  soon  be  attained,  and  the 
designer  that  is  first  able  to  popularize  this  style  is  sure  to 
find  a  ready  market  for  his  designs. 

15.  Originality  an  Essential. — All  designers  should 
avoid  the  error  of  presenting  to  the  manufacturer  a  design 
that  is  partly  copied  or  suggested  from  the  design  of  some 
other  manufacturer,  or  from  sample  books.  The  experi¬ 
enced  manufacturer  will  detect  the  fraud  at  once.  He  is 
experienced  in  buying  designs  and  has  devoted  considerable 
time  to  the  study  of  designs  shown  in  the  sample  books  of 
his  rivals.  He  has  watched  the  market  to  know  what 
designs  are  good  sellers  and  what  are  poor  ones,  and  if  he 
decides  to  deliberately  copy  a  popular  design  of  some  other 
manufacturer,  he  will  do  it,  with  a  perfectly  clear  conscience, 
by  buying  a  sample  of  the  goods  themselves  and  handing  it 
to  his  block  cutter  to  vary  sufficiently  to  make  the  design  his 
own  property.  The  manufacturer,  therefore,  will  not  buy 
designs  that  suggest  in  the  slightest  degree  some  other 
popular  pattern.  It  is  necessary  to  point  this  fact  out  very 
strongly,  because  young  designers  very  frequently  present 
for  sale  to  manufacturers,  designs  that  have  already  been  on 
the  market,  or  are  but  a  slight  variation  from  an  existing 
pattern. 

16.  Salable  Designs. — A  design,  in  order  to  be  salable, 
must  be  thoroughly  practical  and  must  contain  some  good 
points  of  its  own  aside  from  its  practicality,  or  the  manu¬ 
facturer  will  not  go  to  the  expense  of  having  the  blocks  cut. 
An  infinite  amount  of  variation  can  be  played  on  certain 
geometrical  forms  that  have  been  made  use  of  throughout 
all  history  for  surface  decoration;  but  it  should  be  borne  in 


24  OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING 


9 


mind  that  many  of  these  have  been  used  so  often,  with 
slight  variations,  that  they  have  become  thoroughly 
exhausted,  and  the  designer  should  not  be  despondent  if 
some  of  his  first  patterns  submitted  to  the  manufacturer 
were  rejected  on  the  ground  that  the  same  pattern  had  been 
manufactured  before. 

A  design  that  may  be  entirely  original  with  the  designer 
may  be  based  on  certain  geometrical  lines  that  make  its 
general  form  so  familiar  to  the  manufacturer  that  he  is  con¬ 
vinced  that  he  has  seen  practically  the  same  thing  before, 
and  in  such  a  case  the  effect  on  him,  whether  right  or  wrong, 
is  precisely  the  same  as  though  he  actually  had  seen  it  before. 

The  successful  oilcloth  designer  must  be  wide  awake.  He 
must  be  able  to  turn  over  every  ornamental  form  in  his 
mind  and  decide  if  that  can  be  applied  successfully  to  oil¬ 
cloth,  and  if  so,  how.  He  must  understand  well  the  prin¬ 
ciples  of  his  craft,  keep  constantly  in  touch  with  the  best 
things  that  are  being  done,  follow  carefully  the  public  taste 
and  keep  in  advance  of  it.  He  also  must  not  be  led  into 
the  following  of  the  style  or  manner  of  other  designers 
because  they  are  successful,  for  the  details  of  all  their 
designs  that  cause  them  to  be  successful  are  the  only  details 
of  those  designs  that  cannot  be  copied;  that  is,  the  individ¬ 
uality  of  the  man  that  made  them.  It  is  the  individuality  of 
the  designer  that  characterizes  his  work,  in  the  same  manner 
as  it  is  the  individuality  of  the  individual  that  characterizes 
his  handwriting.  The  same  idea  can  be  conveyed  by  several 
people  in  several  styles  of  writing  or  methods  of  expression, 
but  one  of  these  persons  will  express  it  better,  write  it 
better,  or  state  it  more  clearly  than  the  others,  and  it  is 
the  individuality  of  this  person  that  impresses  itself  in 
his  writings. 

In  the  same  manner,  several  designers  may  take  the  same 
idea  and  work  it  into  a  design  and  get  several  different 
results,  one  of  which  will  be  better  than  the  others.  It  is 
the  individuality  of  this  one  designer  that  has  brought  his 
design  into  prominence  compared  with  the  others,  and  one 
cannot  copy  that  design,  and  vary  it  somewhat  in  order  to 


§9  OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING  25 


disguise  the  theft,  without  destroying  the  originality  of  the 
original  designer  and  substituting  the  personality  of  the 
copyist,  thereby  probably  destroying  the  popular  value  of 
the  design  itself.  A  person  that  is  weak  enough  to  copy 
the  design  of  another,  rather  than  invent  work  of  his  own, 
will  impress  his  weakness  on  his  copy  of  the  design  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  neutralize  entirely  the  strength  of  the 
original.  Therefore,  it  should  ever  be  borne  in  mind,  to 
create  all  designs  from  original  motives  and  to  carry  them 
out  without  thought  of  other  existing  patterns. 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


MANUFACTURE  OF  WALLPAPER 

1.  In  wallpaper  design,  it  is  necessary  that  the  student 
should  possess  some  familiarity  with  methods  of  manu¬ 
facture,  and  should  have  a  fair  practical  knowledge  of  the 
limitations  that  are  imposed  by  the  nature  of  the  machinery 
and  the  methods  of  its  operation.  The  designs  that  are 
most  salable  to  the  manufacturer  are  those  that  are  executed 
with  six  or  eight  colors  and  present  the  effect  of  ten  or 
twelve  colors.  In  estimating  the  number  of  colors  on  a 
paper  a  light  background  is  never  included,  as  this  is  put 
on  the  paper  by  a  special  grounding  machine  before  the 
regular  printing  is  done.  Gold  should  be  used  sparingly, 
as  it  not  only  materially  increases  the  cost  of  the  paper, 
but  also  adds  to  the  difficulties  of  its  manufacture. 

2.  Hand  Printing. — In  the  printing  of  wallpaper,  each 
color  or  tint  is  applied  by  means  of  a  separate  block  or 
roller — blocks  being  used  for  hand  printing  and  rollers  for 
machine  printing.  In  hand  printing,  a  rectangular  block 
is  cut  so  that  its  surface  presents,  in  relief,  the  elements  of 
all  parts  of  the  design  that  are  in  one  color  or  tint.  The 
paper,  which  is  in  a  continuous  roll,  is  at  the  end  of  a  long 
table,  by  which  the  printer  stands,  the  paper  being  at  his 
right.  Behind  him  and  also  to  his  right  are  placed  the  tray 
of  color  and  the  color  pad  on  which  he  places  his  block, 
holding  it  by  means  of  one  or  two  handles  on  the  back.  He 
carefully  transfers  the  block  to  the  surface  of  the  paper  where 
it  is  printed  by  pressure  effected  by  means  of  a  long  wooden 
elbow  that  the  printer  pulls  straight,  so  as  to  brace  the  block 
against  the  paper  with  a  thrust  of  the  wooden  elbow  against 


For  notice  of  copyright,  see  page  immediately  fallowing  the  title  page 

g  10 


2 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


10 


the  ceiling.  The  block,  in  printing,  marks  on  the  edge  of 
the  paper  a  guide  so  that  the  following  block  may  be  placed 


Fig.  i 

so  as  to  impress  the  second  color  in  its  proper  place.  As 
the  block  is  printed,  the  paper  is  moved  along  one  repeat  and 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


3 


§  10 


carried  over  cross-bars,  or  sticks,  in  long  loops  or  folds  so  as 
to  dry  thoroughly  before  it  is  rolled  up  to  pass  through  the 
process  again  for  the  printing  of  the  second  color.  Each  color 
is  thus  applied  successively  until  the  entire  surface  of  the  paper 
is  impressed  with  the  design,  and  for  each  color  applied  the 
paper  passes  under  the  printer’s  hands  and  is  impressed  with 
a  separate  block. 

Although  the  finest 
wallpapers  are  printed 
in  this  way,  most  of  the 
hand-printed  papers  are 
imported  from  Europe. 

A  few  American  manu¬ 
facturers  produce  hand 
prints  that  compare  very 
favorably  with  the  im¬ 
ported  article,  but  the 
price  is  so  high  and  the 
demand  for  high-priced 
paper  so  limited,  that 
most  wallpaper  design¬ 
ers  in  this  country  con¬ 
fine  themselves  to  the 
preparation  of  designs 
for  machinery  produc¬ 
tion. 

3.  Machine  Print¬ 
ing. — In  machine  print¬ 
ing,  each  section  of  color 
or  tint  is  printed  from 
a  separate  roller;  while 
the  paper  moves  around 
a  large  drum,  Fig.  1,  it 
comes  successively  in  contact  with  each  color  roller  before 
the  previous  color  has  dried.  This  causes  machine-printed 
papers  to  blend  their  colors  and  prevents  the  clean,  sharp  dis¬ 
tinction  of  outline  that  is  characteristic  of  the  hand-printed 


4 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


§  10 


papers.  Some  wallpapers  are  printed  in  two  colors  only — one 
the  background  and  the  other  a  diaper  or  other  surface  design — 
these  are  printed  from  a  single  roller  as  the  background  is 
printed  by  a  separate  machine.  In  Fig.  2  are  shown  several 
wallpaper  rollers,  each  of  which  presents  a  complete  design; 
whereas  in  Fig.  3  are  shown  a  number  of  rollers  where  each 

presents  but  a  fraction 
of  the  design,  the  entire 
twelve  rollers  being  nec¬ 
essary  to  complete  the 
pattern  in  its  several 
colors. 

4.  Method  of  Ma¬ 
king;  the  Rollers. — A 
very  important  detail  in 
the  process  of  machine- 
printed  paper  is  the  prep¬ 
aration  of  the  rollers  so 
”  that  they  will  exactly 
fa  imprint  all  the  details  of 
the  pattern  in  the  suc¬ 
cessive  colors  and  pre¬ 
sent  a  harmonious  whole. 

This  work  is  executed 
by  skilled  workmen  and 
is  often  a  slow  and 
tedious  process.  The 
rollers  are  made  from 
maple  logs  turned 
exactly  to  the  required 
size,  which  is  regulated 
by  the  length  of  the 
repeat.  Where  a  design 
calls  for  a  number  of  colors,  each  roller  must  be  turned 
to  exactly  the  same  diameter,  within  the  minutest  frac¬ 
tion  of  an  inch,  before  the  design  can  be  executed  on 
its  surface.  After  being  turned  to  the  required  size,  the 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


5 


§  10 

rollers  are  painted  white,  and,  when  dry,  are  given  a  traced 
impression  of  the  entire  pattern.  Upon  each  roller  is  then 
marked  its  part  of  the  pattern;  and  it  is  then  given  to  the 
block  cutter.  The  smallest  details  on  these  surfaces  are 
made  of  solid  pieces  of  brass,  formed  to  the  proper  shape 
by  being  drawn  through  steel  dies.  These  are  then  driven 
into  the  surface  of  the  roller  at  the  proper  places.  Circular 
dots,  etc.  are  made  of  brass  wire  cut  in  pieces  i  inch  or  less 
in  length,  and  with  the  sharpened  end  driven,  with  a  hammer, 
into  the  roller  at  the  required  point.  Larger  surfaces  are 
outlined  with  thin  strips  of  brass  that  are  skilfully  filed  and 
bent  to  the  required  forms,  and  then  sharpened  on  the  lower 
edge  so  as  to  be  driven  into  the  wood  after  the  outline  has 
been  cut  in  with  a  knife  or  a  chisel.  This  outline  of  brass 
is  driven  firmly  and  solidly  into  the  wood,  somewhat  less 
than  i  inch  of  its  length  being  left  above  the  surface.  When 
this  work  is  complete,  the  spaces  within  these  brass  outlines 
are  filled  with  heavy  felt  that  has  been  soaked  in  hot  glue. 
When  the  felt  and  glue  dries,  it  forms  a  hard  and  perfectly 
solid  printing  surface  within  the  brass  outline. 

The  rollers  are  then  placed  on  a  lathe  and  trued  up,  or 
ground,  to  the  finished  diameter,  which  makes  their  circum¬ 
ference  exactly  equal  to  the  repeat  on  the  paper.  When  all 
the  rollers  have  passed  through  these  processes  and  are 
finished  to  the  exact  circumference,  they  are  ready  for  the 
printing  machine. 

5.  In  Fig.  1  is  shown  a  machine  on  which  an  eight-color 
ceiling  paper  is  being  printed.  The  paper  is  fed  in  at  the 
bottom  and  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  machine,  from  whence 
it  passes  around  a  large  drum,  as  shown,  and  comes  in  con¬ 
tact  with  the  various  color  rollers,  after  which  it  passes  off 
at  the  top  of  the  machine  with  the  paper  completely  printed. 

The  strip  is  then  carried,  in  long  loops,  over  a  coil  of  steam 
pipes  by  means  of  which  the  colors  are  thoroughly  dried 
before  the  paper  reaches  the  opposite  end  of  the  long  build¬ 
ing,  where  it  is  rolled  up  by  machinery  and  so  cut  that  each 
roll  contains  exactly  the  same  amount. 


6 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


§  10 


6.  Difference  Between  Hand-Printed  and  Machine- 
Printed  Papers.- — Having-  considered  the  two  methods  of 
manufacture,  let  us  observe  the  difference  in  the  appear¬ 
ance  of  hand-made  paper  and  machine-made  paper.  Com¬ 
pare  Fig.  4  with  Fig.  5  and  observe  that,  while  the  details  of 
the  former  are  perfectly  sharp  and  distinct,  and  probably 


Fig.  4 


determine  accurately  the  appearance  of  the  designer’s  origi¬ 
nality,  the  tones  are  softened  in  Fig.  5  so  that  one  blends 
into  another  very  much  as  in  ordinary  water-color  paint¬ 
ing;  these  facts  should  be  taken  into  consideration  by  the 
designer.  Where  the  design  is  of  a  severely  conventional 
character,  sharp  distinctness  being  required  between  the 


fvy  - 


Fig.  ti 


§  10  WALLPAPER  DESIGNING  7 

several  figures,  he  should  prepare  his  design  for  the  hand 
process,  but  where  he  requires  a  particularly  realistic  effect — 
a  blending  of  natural  forms  one  into  the  other,  a  softness  of 


Fig.  5 

detail  that  leads  the  eye  from  one  color  to  another  without 
any  definite  point  of  transition — the  machine-printed  paper 
will  give  better  satisfaction. 

7.  The  Colors. — The  colors  with  which  the  printing  is 
done  are  composed  of  a  mixture  of  the  required  pigment 


8 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


10 


ground  in  water  and  thickened  with  glue  and  dextrine. 
They  must  be  of  such  consistency  that  they  do  not  blur  or 
blend  one  into  another  to  any  great  extent,  and  at  the 
same  time  they  must  be  thin  enough  to  flow  readily  from 
the  surface  of  the  felt  belts  and  properly  cover  the  rollers. 

The  colors  are  supplied  to  each  roller  by  means  of  felt 
belts  that  are  so  adjusted  that  they  pass  through  troughs 
containing  the  color  and  distribute  it  accurately  to  the  print¬ 
ing  rollers  so  that  each  receives  just  the  proper  amount. 
This  is  determined  by  experiment,  as  the  belts  are  readily 
adjusted  to  change  the  amount  of  color  being  fed,  and  should 
it  be  found  that  as  the  paper  passes  through  the  machine 
too  much  or  too  little  is  being  distributed,  the  belts  can 
be  adjusted  in  position  so  as  to  vary  the  amount. 

It  is  evident,  too,  that  as  the  amount  of  color  can  be  varied  as 
it  is  distributed  on  the  rollers,  and  that  the  amount  of  blurring 
and  softness  of  effect  can  be  regulated  by  the  quantity  of 
size  or  glue  that  is  mixed  with  it,  quite  a  variety  of  effects  in 
design  can  be  obtained  where  the  designer  understands  the 
possibilities  of  these  color  mixtures  in  manufacturing  details. 
In  many  machine-printed  papers  that  possess  a  number  of 
colors,  this  blurring  is  very  conspicuous  and  is  frequently  a 
means  of  rendering  the  paper  more  interesting  than  it  would 
be  where  each  detail  was  in  sharp  outline. 

A  designer,  however,  should  always  bear  in  mind  that  his 
design  must  be  executed  so  that  a  distinct  outline  can  be 
observed  between  each  color  and  its  neighbor.  His  mental 
conception  of  the  finished  paper  may  be  one  of  softness  and 
freedom  from  graduation  from  one  part  into  another,  but  his 
execution  of  the  design  must  not  show  any  uncertainty  as  to 
where  one  color  stops  and  another  begins.  If  such  uncer¬ 
tainty  exists,  the  block  cutters  will  never  be  able  to  get 
the  repeats  of  their  patterns  cut  accurately.  All  shading 
from  one  part  into  another  is  accomplished  by  means  of 
planes  of  color,  or  gradual  steps  from  one  tone  into  another, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  6,  which  is  a  reproduction  of  a  stu¬ 
dent’s  exercise,  and  should  be  practiced  repeatedly  with 
different  forms. 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


9 


§  10 


Fig  7 


10  WALLPAPER  DESIGNING  §  10 

It  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  designer  to  be  thoroughly 
familiar  with  this  technique  as  well  as  with  the  details  of 
manufacture,  for  on  this  depends  the  practical  value  of  the 
paper,  and,  outside  of  its  merit  as  to  design,  its  entire 
selling  quality.  The  character  of  this  technique  can  best  be 
obtained  by  copying  examples  of  any  good  designs.  Hand¬ 
printed  papers  are  admirable  for  this  work  when  they  can  be 
obtained,  and,  when  they  cannot,  it  is  best  to  use  as  copy 
some  good  quality  of  printed  cotton  goods,  such  as  cretonne 


or  sateen,  as  in  most  of  these  goods  the  printing  is  much 
more  clearly  defined  than  on  machine-printed  paper.  The 
student,  after  practicing  these  copies,  should  endeavor  to 
translate  some  floral  form  from  nature  into  a  suitable  wall¬ 
paper  design,  and  where  floral  forms  cannot  be  obtained, 
photographs  of  them  are  next  to  be  desired,  such  as  is  shown 
in  Fig.  7.  In  practicing  all  these  exercises,  as  well  as  in 
making  practical  designs  for  wallpaper  printing,  it  is  best  to 
proceed  in  the  order  of  the  depth  of  the  tone,  painting  the 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


11 


§  10 


lightest  masses  first  and  proceeding  in  the  order  of  their 
depth  to  the  darkest  until  the  whole  pattern  is  finished. 

For  instance,  the  tone  a  in  Fig.  8  would  be  the  first  one 
painted;  it  might  extend  over  the  entire  form  of  the  leaf 
and  the  darker  tones  be  placed  over  it,  but  this  is  hardly 
necessary,  as  it  can  be  carried  a  slight  distance  under  the 
limits  of  the  tone  b,  while  b,  when  laid,  can  be  carried  a 
short  distance  under  the  tone  c,  and  c  under  d.  When  the 
design  is  executed  on  the  printing  machine,  this  is  the  order 
in  which  it  will  be  printed  to  produce  the  most  desirable 
effect,  as  it  can  be  seen  that  should  there  be  a  slight  dis¬ 
crepancy  in  the  register  between  these  colors,  the  darker 
color  will  obliterate  the  lighter  one,  and  thereby  present 
a  more  even  appearance  than  if  a  light  color  overlapped  a 
dark  one  and  caused  a  grayish  tone  in  the  outlines.  There¬ 
fore,  if  the  designer  observes  this  rule  in  preparing  his 
design,  he  will  find  that  much  trouble  will  be  saved  in  its 
reproduction  and  his  ability  will  be  much  appreciated  there¬ 
for  by  the  manufacturer.  Very  small  high  lights  are  usually 
painted  on  top  of  other  water  colors  for  convenience,  but  it 
is  best  to  leave  these  in  painting  the  dark  colors,  as  it  adds 
materially  to  the  convenience  of  the  color  printers. 

Where  an  outline  is  used  to  distinctly  emphasize  the  edges 
of  the  form  it  is  better  that  it  should  be  dark,  for  light  out- 
_lines  do  not  clearly  express  themselves. 

When  gold  is  used  on  a  design,  it  should  be  arranged  so 
as  to  fall  entirely  clear  of  any  color,  and  whether  executed  as 
an  outline  to  some  form  or  in  masses,  it  should  be  distinct 
in  its  own  particular  shape  so  that  there  may  be  no  difficulty 
in  getting  the  block  that  is  to  determine  its  printing  on  the 
wallpaper.  Gold  is  not  printed  directly  from  a  roller,  as  are 
the  colors,  but  as  the  paper  passes  through  the  printing 
machine,  the  last  roller  with  which  it  comes  in  contact 
impresses  its  design  on  the  general  surface  in  varnish 
that  is  much  slower  drying  than  the  water  colors  with  which 
the  rest  of  the  paper  is  printed.  After  all  the  water  color 
has  dried,  this  sizing  of  varnish  is  still  sticky,  and  gold  or 
bronze  powder  sifted  over  the  paper  will  adhere  to  this 


12 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


§  10 


sizing  while  it  may  be  brushed  off  the  rest  of  the  paper. 
It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  there  must  be  distinctness  of 
outline  so  that  the  surface  covered  by  this  varnish  may  be 
clearly  determined  and  may  not  overlap  any  of  the  forms 
that  are  to  be  executed  in  the  water  color. 


PREPARING  THE  DESIGN 

8.  Laying  Out  the  Design. — Assuming  that  the  width 
of  a  repeat  of  the  wallpaper  has  been  determined  to  be 
18  inches,  the  designer  first  considers  the  lengths  of  repeats 
that  are  most  convenient  in  ordinary  reproduction;  these  are 
111  inches,  12f  inches,  14f  inches,  171  inches,  18f  inches, 
21 4  inches,  and  23t  inches.  He  then  lays  off  the  required 
dimensions  of  the  width  of  the  paper  and  the  repeat,  in  the 
center  of  a  large  sheet  of  Manila  or  brown-detail  paper, 
leaving  an  8-inch  or  10-inch  margin  all  around  the  design. 
This  margin  permits  sufficient  freedom  for  the  designer 
to  draw  in  his  general  idea  and  indicate  a  portion  of  the 
repeat  of  all  four  sides.  This  large  surface  can  be  considered 
as  a  portion  of  the  wall  on  which  the  designer  is  then 
arranging  his  paper.  The  leading  lines  should  be  sketched 
in  with  crayon  or  charcoal  passing  throughout  the  repeat 
to  the  very  limits  of  the  paper  unless  the  design  is  to  be 
composed  of  small  geometrical  figures,  when  the  general 
effect  of  the  design  can  be  observed  in  smaller  compass. 

If  charcoal  is  used  and  the  lines  are  sketched  very  lightly 
at  first,  they  can  be  easily  erased,  in  order  to  make  changes, 
by  means  of  a  small  piece  of  chamois  leather;  if  crayon  is 
used,  the  lines  may  be  erased  with  a  piece  of  rye  bread. 

The  arrangement  of  a  large  floral  design,  such  as  shown 
in  Fig.  9,  requires  much  thought  and  study  in  order  to  arrive 
at  a  fixed  and  satisfactory  composition.  A  designer  very 
tarelv  conceives  a  whole  pattern  in  detail  before  executing 
part  of  it  on  paper.  He  may  picture  before  his  mind  a  few 
leading  lines  and  general  effects  of  floral  forms  that  he  is 
desirous  of  using,  and  he  may  have  a  mental  picture  of 


10 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


13 


Fig.  9 


14 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


10 


whether  the  finished  pattern  is  to  present  an  all-over,  a 
spotted,  or  a  powdered  effect,  but  his  ideas  may  change  as 
he  works  up  the  design,  for  as  he  pursues  his  way  in  his 
first  preliminary  sketches,  new  suggestions  will  come  to  him 
as  the  lines  multiply  and  the  general  structure  of  the  design 
is  mapped  out. 

After  thus  beginning  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  alter  and 
work  out  the  structural  lines  until  they  are  pleasing,  and  the 
details  can  still  more  easily  be  supplied.  The  designer  should 


Fig.  10 


never  attempt  the  slightest  detail,  however,  until  he  is 
thoroughly  satisfied  with  the  general  character  of  his 
composition. 

As  objectionable  spotting  or  lining  cannot  be  easily  deter¬ 
mined  when  the  drawing  is  in  outline  only,  the  general  forms 
should  be  darkened  or  spotted  by  means  of  charcoal  or 
crayon,  as  shown  in  Fig.  10,  where  a  dandelion  has  been 
conventionalized  and  taken  as  the  motive. 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


15 


§  10 


By  this  method  of  procedure,  the  design  has  practically 
been  proved  on  the  wall  surface  before  any  of  its  details 
are  elaborated.  This  avoids  much  waste  of  time  and  is  the 
only  safe  way  for  a  beginner;  for  the  composition  that  is 


Fig.  11 

commenced  with  detail  and  worked  into  structural  principles 
afterwards  is  almost  invariably  a  weak  design  that  is 
unsatisfactory  and  unsalable.  Detail  takes  time,  and  when 


16 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


§  10 

it  is  fully  drawn  out  at  first,  one  rarely  has  the  patience  and 
determination  to  rub  out  the  unsatisfactory  elaborations 
and  to  do  the  work  over  again  to  eliminate  the  faulty  points. 
Therefore,  every  designer  making  repeating  patterns,  should 
have  before  his  mind  constantly  the  following  rule:  Never 
draw  an  elaborate  detail  before  knowing  exactly  where  each 
part  of  it  should  be  placed. 

When  the  satisfactory  arrangement  of  the  general  repeat 
and  the  adjustment  of  the  forms  are  determined,  the  detail  of 
one  complete  repeat  of  the  design  should  be  drawn  within 
the  outlines  of  the  original  plot  that  was  laid  in  the  center 
of  the  paper.  Where  important  forms  are  cut  in  two  by  the 
lines  of  the  repeat,  as  is  the  case  in  the  design  shown  in 
Fig.  9,  the  entire  form  should  be  drawn  at  that  point  to  insure  , 
absolutely  perfect  matching  when  the  design  is  repeated. 
Fig.  10  is  from  a  working  drawing  rendered  in  water  colors 
by  a  student  of  the  Ecole  Guerin  at  Paris.  It  is  an  arrange¬ 
ment  of  poppies  and  their  leaves  decoratively  treated  and 
cleverly  grouped  in  strong  masses  on  a  drop-pattern  repeat. 
The  entire  composition  is  bold  and  simple,  the  strong  effect 
being  obtained  absolutely  by  means  of  flat  washes  of  color. 
In  Fig.  11  is  shown  a  design  based  on  the  conventionalized 
form  of  the  closed  gentian.  The  trumpet  flower  is  similarly 
treated  in  Fig.  12  and  the  Zinnia  in  Fig.  13,  while  the  arrow¬ 
head  is  shown  in  Fig.  14.  These  designs  were  executed  by 
students  of  the  School  of  Industrial  Art  at  Philadelphia,  and 
show  to  what  extent  simple  forms  may  be  conventionalized 
from  the  natural  objects. 

9.  Making  tlie  Working  Drawings. — In  designing 
wallpaper,  the  color  scheme  should  first  be  tried,  to 
determine  its  value  and  the  effect.  After  this  has  been 
finally  decided  and  the  working  drawing  is  entirely  com¬ 
pleted,  the  design  should  be  transferred  for  its  final  painting 
to  a  sheet  of  stretched  drawing  paper  that  has  been  coated 
with  a  background  color.  If  the  design  is  a  large  one,  such 
as  shown  in  Fig.  9,  at  least  3  or  4  inches  should  be  shown 
beyond  the  repeat  on  all  sides,  while  with  smaller  designs  a 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


17 


§  10 


Fig. 12 


18 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


§  10 


number  of  complete  repeats  should  be  worked  out.  The 
stretched  drawing  paper  on  which  the  working  drawing  is  exe¬ 
cuted  should  be  large  enough  to  permit  a  clear  margin  of  at 
least  4  inches  all  around  the  finished  design.  Some  designers 

make  a  margin  of  6  or  8 
inches  on  large  patterns, 
and  render  this  margin  in 
a  flat  color  that  harmon¬ 
izes  or  contrasts  agree¬ 
ably  with  the  color  scheme 
of  the  design  itself.  This 
border  serves  the  simple 
purpose  of  framing  the 
picture.  The  effect  is 
still  more  striking  when 
the  design  is  separated 
from  this  border  by  a 
heavy  line  of  contrasting 
tone  or  color  that  is 
lighter  or  darker  than  the 
border  itself,  as  the  case 
may  require.  The  object 
of  this  should  be  obvious. 
It  is  the  designer’s  desire 
and  intention  to  show  his 
work  to  the  best  advan¬ 
tage  in  submitting  it  for 
sale;  and  any  detail  that 
he  can  add  to  his  finished 
design  that  will  make  it 
more  presentable,  is  a 
perfectly  legitimate  way 
to  commend  his  efforts 
to  the  attention  of  the 
prospective  purchaser.  Neat,  accurate  work  is  absolutely 
necessary.  The  color  scheme  should  be  definitely  deter¬ 
mined  on  before  the  final  painting  is  commenced. 


„ 

1 


Fig. 14 


Fig. 13 


10 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


19 


10.  Rendering. — In  rendering,  it  is  advisable  and  often 
necessary  to  paint  each  individual  color  wherever  it  is  to 
occur  in  the  whole  design  at  one  painting,  or  at  least  in  one 
day,  and  then  apply  the  next  darker  color. 

Many  of  the  designer’s  moist  colors  change  rapidly  after 
exposure  to  the  light  and  air,  and  by  working  over  the  entire 
design  with  one  decided  color,  the  designer  will  avoid  the 
introduction  of  a  new  tone  or  shade,  where  he  does  not 
desire  it,  through  the  fading  or  changing  of  some  color 
previously  applied.  The  entire  color  scheme,  however, 
should  be  tried  on  some  one  portion  of  the  design,  and  then 
each  successive  color  applied  in  its  proper  place  until  the 
design  is  finished. 

A  color  laid  on  a  drawing  one  day  may  change  sufficiently 
to  be  quite  a  different  hue  the  next  day,  and  consequently 
the  inexperienced  designer,  whose  rendering  is  likely  to  be 
slow,  sometimes  finds  his  work  to  be  decidedly  uneven  in 
color  when  a  number  of  days  have  been  spent  in  the 
preparation  of  his  design. 

It  is  best,  however,  to  use  as  few  colors  as  possible  in  the 
execution  of  any  design,  as  it  produces  a  more  simple  effect 
and  renders  the  paper  much  less  expensive  to  produce. 
Printing  machines  for  wallpapers  are  constructed  to  run  a 
certain  limited  number  of  colors.  The  one  shown  in  Fig.  1 
carries  only  eight  rollers  and  can  print  a  pattern  of  only 
eight  colors  at  one  time,  not  counting  the  background, 
which  is  usually  applied  by  a  separate  machine,  called  the 
grounding  machine.  The  machine  shown  in  Fig.  1,  however, 
can  print  any  number  of  colors  less  than  eight,  and  it  is 
therefore  quite  necessary  that  the  designer  should  acquaint 
himself  with  the  color  capacities  of  the  manufacturers  to  whom 
he  proposes  to  submit  his  design.  Six-  and  eight-color 
machines  are  very  common  in  the  United  States,  though 
twelve-  and  sixteen-color  machines  exist  in  some  places. 
The  latter  is  about  the  highest  limit  for  machine  printing  in 
this  country.  However,  designs  containing  eight  colors  or 
less  are  the  most  acceptable  ones  to  the  average  manufac¬ 
turer,  for  it  is  expensive  to  cut  the  rolls  for  a  multicolor 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


20 


§  10 


paper,  and  every  form  of  economy  in  printing  a  design  is  a 
point  in  favor  of  the  designer. 

11.  Prices  Paid  for  Designs. — The  prices  paid  for 
designs  vary  from  $20  to  $50  for  each  single  pattern;  com¬ 
bination  patterns  of  ceiling,  frieze,  and  side  wall  are  worth 
from  $50  to  $60,  according  to  the  design.  The  cheaper 
grades  of  paper  are  usually  produced  in  sets  of  three  pieces, 
but  the  more  expensive  ones  are  produced  only  as  side-wall 
papers,  or  occasionally  in  combination  of  side  wall  and  frieze. 

Fig.  4  is  reproduced  directly  from  a  design  executed  by  a 
prominent  wallpaper  designer  of  Paris,  and  purchased  from 
him  by  a  Philadelphia  firm.  In  effect,  it  is  a  tapestry 
design  of  the  period  of  Louis  XIV,  arranged  in  18-inch 
repeats  as  a  drop  pattern.  It  contains  twelve  colors  very  skil¬ 
fully  placed  so  that  each  touch  of  color  is  very  clearly  defined. 

In  Fig.  5  is  shown  a  piece  of  printed  wallpaper  that, 
compared  with  the  design  in  Fig.  4,  gives  a  clear  idea  of 
the  comparative  amount  of  surface  that  must  be  covered  in 
the  original  design  in  order  to  insure  the  proper  repeat  in  the 
finished  article.  In  running  this  pattern  on  the  machine, 
twelve  arrangements  of  color  are  produced  in  order  to  suit 
the  varying  conditions  and  demands  of  the  public  taste. 
The  original  design  was  executed  in  several  tones  of  olive, 
blue,  brown,  and  red,  as  marked  on  the  rolls  in  Fig.  3.  The 
network  of  black  lines  that  gives  the  finished  paper  the 
appearance  of  woven  tapestry  was  applied  after  the  design 
was  completed  on  the  wallpaper  printing  machine  by  another 
machine  used  exclusively  for  this  purpose.  These  lines  are 
not  indicated  on  the  original  design,  as  each  manufacturer 
usually  possesses  a  variety  of  rollers  that  give  any  desired 
tapestry  effect. 

The  price  paid  for  the  design  in  Fig.  4  was  $40,  but  the 
cost  of  preparing  the  rolls  and  other  details  for  its  print¬ 
ing  possibly  exceeded  $500  before  one  roll  of  the  finished 
product  could  be  taken  from  the  machine. 

1-.  Forecasting1  Styles. — The  immense  expense  in¬ 
curred  in  reproducing  a  design  requires  that  the  buyer  of 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


21 


§  10 

the  wallpaper  manufacturing  company  be  particularly  careful 
in  the  selection  of  his  patterns.  There  is  always  an  uncer¬ 
tainty  as  to  the  tenor  of  public  feeling,  and  even  the  experi¬ 
enced  design  buyer  cannot  tell  in  advance  whether  his 
judgment  is  going  to  bring  profit  or  loss. 

Men  with  years  of  experience  draw  their  own  conclusions 
and  make  prophecies  as  to  the  popularity  and  failure  of  cer¬ 
tain  styles,  and  these  conclusions  usually  determine  whether 
they  will  purchase  or  reject  certain  designs  submitted  to 
them.  The  designer,  therefore,  must  not  consider  that  the 
refusal  of  his  design  always  indicates  its  unsuitability  or 
impracticability  or  lack  of  merit,  as  the  wallpaper-design 
buyer  is  influenced  by  many  more  things  than  artistic 
merit.  He  knows  more  of  the  public  taste  than  the 
designer,  and  he  determines  by  a  judgment  that  amounts 
almost  to  intuition,  what  is  destined  to  become  a  good 
seller  in  the  wallpaper  market  and  what  is  not  destined  to 
become  popular  in  the  public  eye.  These  are  the  details 
that  to  him  determine  the  value  of  a  design. 

It  may  be  well  to  quote  in  this  connection  an  editorial 
that  appeared  in  the  Wallpaper  News  and  Interior  Deco¬ 
rator:  "It  is  sometimes  possible  to  tell  in  advance  what 
general  styles  of  wallpaper  will  be  popular  during  a  coming 
season,  but  it  was  never  more  difficult  than  this  season. 
The  reason  for  this  is  that  there  will  probably  be  a  greater 
variety  of  popular  goods  than  ever  before.  The  old  oriental 
tapestry  that  had  such  a  run  has  given  place  to  a  wide 
variety  of  fabric  effects  of  different  kinds.  Crown  effects  are 
being  employed  in  many  different  ways.  Panelings  are 
found  in  every  line  this  year. 

“  There  seems  to  be  a  revival  of  interest  in  Gothic, 
especially  in  furniture,  and  wallpaper  and  other  furnishings 
usually  follow  the  lead  of  furniture.  The  “Mission”  style  of 
furniture  was  rather  severe,  and  though  the  Gothic  is  built 
on  the  same  straight  lines  it  is  more  decorative  and  hence 
better  suited  to  our  modern  taste. 

“As  far  as  wallpapers  are  concerned  there  is  little  Gothic 
on  the  market,  and  designers  and  manufacturers  at  the 


22 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


10 


present  time  would  do  well  to  suit  the  style.  Tapestry  and 
heraldic  effects  come  probably  the  nearest  to  Gothic.  What 
one  should  consider  is  that  there  is  a  demand  for  something 
that  will  harmonize  with  the  beautiful  Gothic  furniture  that 
is  now  being  placed  on  the  market.” 

From  this,  the  student  will  see  that  much  valuable  informa¬ 
tion  can  be  obtained  by  reading  the  trade  papers  that  deal 
with  the  subjects  of  wallpaper  and  furniture  design  or 
interior  decoration.  Such  hints  as  the  foregoing  are  invalu¬ 
able  when  obtained  in  time,  and  a  comparison  of  the  facts 
set  forth  in  this  editorial  quoted  above  with  the  new  styles 
that  appear  in  the  following  seasons  indicates  somewhat 
that  the  trade  papers  keep  in  touch  with  what  is  about  to 
be  done. 

13.  Following  the  foregoing  description  of  prevailing 
styles  and  coming  styles,  Fig.  15  shows  a  design  represent¬ 
ing  the  crown  effect  characteristic  of  the  French  style, 
dividing  the  wall  into  panels  crowned  by  masses  of  flowers. 
Fig.  16  shows  a  panel  effect  on  the  side  wall  over  which  is 
placed  a  conventional  landscape  frieze  that  makes  a  very 
effective  design  for  a  severely  conventional  room,  such  as 
a  library,  and  one  in  which  severe  Gothic  furniture  can  be 
placed  with  great  satisfaction.  In  Fig.  17  a  strong  effect 
is  obtained  by  arranging  the  Louis  XIV  tapestry,  shown  in 
Fig.  5,  in  a  panel  with  a  specially  designed  border,  show¬ 
ing  what  can  be  accomplished  by  using  existing  styles  for 
severely  conventional  wall  treatment  when  specially  designed 
styles  to  suit  certain  conditions  do  not  already  exist. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  WALL  DECORATION 

14.  While  all  six  sides  of  a  room  must  be  carefully 
considered  in  preparing  the  general  decorative  scheme,  the 
four  side  walls  and  ceiling  will  admit  of  much  more  liberal 
and  free  treatment  than  the  floor.  The  side  walls  of  a 
room  must  usually  be  considered  as  a  background  to  the 
other  fittings;  were  this  not  the  case,  any  reasonable  type  or 


10 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


23 


element  of  design  might  be  represented  in  the  decoration. 
As  a  usual  thing,  the  side  walls  and  their  decoration  must  be 
considered  in  connection  with  the  furniture,  carpets,  hangings, 


Fig. 15 


pictures,  and  other  elements  of  the  furnishings.  There¬ 
fore,  a  conspicuous  floral  pattern  is  always  bad.  Such 
designs  can  never  hold  one’s  interest  long.  The  senses 


24 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


10 


soon  become  weary  of  them  and  after  a  while  the  presence 
of  its  self-asserting  decorative  elements  becomes  positively 
irritating  and  annoying. 


Fig. 16 


Designs  for  wall  decoration  can  be  cheerful  and  even  gay, 
but  they  should  never  be  boisterous.  The  public’s  constant 
demand  for  novelty  leads  the  designer  to  execute  exag¬ 
gerated  floral  effects  with  the  idea  of  attracting  the  public 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


25 


§  10 

eye  and  making  the  paper  salable;  but  such  designs  are 
popular  on  the  market  for  but  a  short  time,  for  when  they 
are  imposed  on  people  of  refined  tastes  their  production  is 
soon  discontinued.  The  effect  of  novelty  can  be  easily 
satisfied  within  the  bounds  of  good  taste,  and  it  is  the 


realization  of  this  fact  that  enables  the  French  and  the 
English  designers  to  create  patterns  that  are  more  eagerly 
sought  by  American  manufacturers  than  are  the  usual  Amer¬ 
ican  patterns.  The  foreign  designers  have  become  better 


Fig. 17 


26 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


10 


acquainted  with  the  principles  of  artistic  design;  and,  while 
they  are  producing  quite  as  many  novelties  as  American 
designers,  they  confine  these  novelties  within  the  bounds  of 
good  taste.  These  designers  command  suitable  prices,  and 
at  the  same  time  educate  the  people  that  use  their  designs 
to  appreciate  the  value  of  good  work,  and  thereby  raise 


Fig. IS 

the  artistic  standard  of  the  entire  community.  It  is  but  a 
few  years  since  decorative  art  has  been  systematically  taught 
in  this  country,  and  American  designers  should  soon  com¬ 
pete  with,  if  not  excel,  on  equal  grounds,  their  foreign 
competitors.  The  art  schools  throughout  the  country  are 
teaching  hundreds  of  students  to  design  properly.  The 
best  manufacturers  in  the  country  are  printing  hundreds  of 
designs  every  year  that  are  educating  the  people  to  a  higher 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


27 


§  10 

standard  of  art.  The  time,  therefore,  should  not  be  far 
distant  when  none  but  good  designs  will  be  accepted  by 
the  mass  of  the  people,  no  matter  whether  they  are  made 
by  Americans  or  Europeans,  or  whether  they  are  high-priced 
or  low-priced;  for  a  principle  of  good  design  can  be  applied 
to  paper  costing  25  cents  per  roll  just  as  well  as  to  paper 
costing  $2.50  per  roll. 

It  is  every  designer’s  duty,  no  matter  what  may  be  his 
branch  of  art,  always  to  do  the  best  he  can  and  never  give 
to  the  public  or  to  his  client  a  design  of  which  he  cannot 
approve.  If  the  people  to  whom  he  is  catering  possess  vulgar 
taste,  it  is  his  duty  to  educate  them  by  giving  them  good 
designs,  for  as  soon  as  their  taste  becomes  refined  they  will 
accept  none  but  the  best,  and  if  he  has  been  in  the  habit  of 
giving  them  inartistic  designs,  they  will  abandon  him  as 
soon  as  they  know  better. 

The  paper  hanger  of  the  present  day  is  frequently  the 
middle  man  between  the  manufacturer  and  the  purchaser. 
He  presents  to  his  customers  a  few  styles  from  which  is 
selected  the  paper  that  will  be  hung  in  a  room;  if  he  pos¬ 
sesses  no  taste,  his  selection  of  papers  tends  to  degrade  the 
taste  of  his  clients  or  to  prevent  their  advancement  in  artistic 
ideas.  It  is  as  much  the  paper  hanger’s  duty  to  become 
educated  in  design  as  it  is  the  designer’s,  but  when  so  edu¬ 
cated  he  usually  terms  himself  an  interior  decorator.  He 
dictates  largely  to  the  tastes  of  the  people  and  creates  a 
demand  on  the  manufacturers  and  designers;  therefore,  the 
designer  should  use  every  endeavor  to  improve  the  taste  of 
the  paper  hanger  in  order  that  his  own  advanced  ideas  may 
be  appreciated  by  the  public.  Owen  Jones,  a  well-known 
writer,  in  “Grammar  of  Ornament”  states:  “No  improve¬ 
ment  can  take  place  in  the  art  and  taste  of  the  present 
generation  until  all  classes,  including  artists,  manufacturers, 
and  the  general  public,  are  well  educated  in  art  and  the 
existence  of  general  principles  is  fully  recognized.” 

15.  Varying  Tastes  of  Different  Localities.- — In 
some  sections  of  this  country  there  is  a  lingering  fondness 


28 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


10 


for  the  Colonial  style  of  architecture.  In  other  sections  the 
Colonial  style  has  been  revived  after  other  styles  have  been 
tried  and  abandoned.  During  the  few  years  immediately 
following  the  Spanish-American  War,  public  taste  took  a 
decided  trend  to  the  Spanish  styles  of  decoration;  all  of 
these  are  suggestions  to  the  designer  and  interior  decorator 
of  the  styles  he  should  study  in  order  to  satisfy  public  taste 
without  producing  incongruous  combinations.  With  the 
revival  of  the  Colonial  style  of  architecture,  certain  enter¬ 
prising  manufacturers  incurred  considerable  expense  to  care¬ 
fully  uncover  some  of  the  ancient  papers  on  the  walls  of  old 
Colonial  houses  and  to  employ  designers  to  prepare  exact 
reproductions  of  them.  The  enterprising  designer  makes 
himself  so  familiar  with  the  prevailing  styles  that  he  can 
produce  new  and  original  designs  in  the  spirit  of  the  old 
style.  Copies  of  antique  patterns  are  not  new  designs,  and 
the  designer  who  permits  himself  to  degenerate  to  the 
copyist  cannot  expect  to  advance  in  his  profession. 

Fig.  18  is  a  design  worked  by  a  student  from  a  piece  of 
16th  century  Italian  arabesque;  Fig.  19  is  a  pattern  worked 
out  by  a  student,  the  original  idea  of  which  was  taken  from 
the  embroidery  on  a  priest’s  robe  made  in  the  16th  century. 

In  Figs.  20  and  21  are  shown  two  patterns  that  can  be 
classed  in  the  Colonial  style;  characteristic  of  these  daintily 
colored  stripes  were  bouquets  or  garlands  of  flowers  in 
imitation  of  the  old  brocades.  In  modern  work,  these  pat¬ 
terns  are  imitated  occasionally  in  cretonnes  and  are  singu¬ 
larly  appropriate  for  this  style  of  wall  decoration.  Fig.  20 
is  from  the  French  hand-printed  paper,  while  Fig.  21  is  a 
design  by  a  student  taken  from  a  piece  of  old  silk  in  the 
Pennsylvania  Museum.  This  adoption  of  old  silk  and 
tapestry  designs  to  modern  wallpaper  is  frequently  made  by 
designers  in  producing  patterns  in  very  historic  styles,  and  is 
of  particular  value  when  it  is  necessary  to  give  various  cloth 
and  tapestry  effects. 

16.  Designs  for  Special  Rooms. — The  demand  for 
designs  suitable  to  special  rooms  is  becoming  more  and 


10 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


29 


Fi«. 19 


30 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


§  10 

more  marked.  People  of  wealth  frequently  order  special 
wall  covering's  made  exclusively  for  their  own  houses,  and 
as  the  middle  class  of  people  endeavors  to  imitate  the  tastes 
and  manners  of  the  wealthier  classes,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
designer  should  endeavor  to  please  this  class,  for  the  manu¬ 
facturers  depend  on  the  middle  class  for  the  sale  of  the  bulk 
of  their  goods.  This  tendency  is  the  cause  of  the  existence 
of  such  designs  as  the  crown  frieze,  paneling  in  imitation  of 
wood  or  leather,  etc.  These  designs  have  been  properly 
applied  and  appropriated  to  a  room,  giving  them  much  the 
appearance  of  having  been  designed  to  fit  that  especial  room, 
and  consequently  are  sought  after  by  persons  that  desire  these 
individual  effects  in  imitation  of  the  wealthier  classes. 

The  designer  and  the  interior  decorator  must  have  a 
definite  idea  as  to  the  kind  of  pattern  that  is  appropriate  for 
an  individual  room.  The  former  must  be  able  to  invent, 
and  the  latter  to  select,  designs  suitable  to  the  different 
rooms  of  an  ordinary  house,  from  the  parlor  to  the  kitchen 
and  bath. 

17.  Classification  of  Wallpapers. — The  manufacturer 
classes  his  various  papers  under  headings  that  represent  the 
rooms  for  which  they  are  appropriate,  and  he  endeavors  to 
have  as  wide  a  variety  as  possible  in  the  several  designs 
included  in  each  class.  In  the  average  city  house,  there 
should  be  sufficient  contrast  and  harmony  of  tone  and  design 
from  one  room  to  another  to  prevent  a  feeling  of  monot¬ 
ony,  as  one  goes  through  the  house,  without  too  great  an 
impression  of  variety;  the  following  styles  are  suggested 
as  appropriate: 

1.  The  Hall. — The  hall  should  be  rich  and  cheerful  in 
color  though  not  necessarily  brilliant,  unless  the  hall  is  very 
dark.  The  pattern  should  be  old  but  subdued  in  effect;  it 
should  be  dignified  and  rather  pretentious  in  drawing, 
severely  conventional,  suggestive  of  direct  mural  paintings 
in  panels,  or  of  cloth  or  tapestry  effects. 

2.  The  Parlor  or  Drawing  Room. — The  parlor  or  drawing 
room  should  be  stately  and  pretentious  in  its  pattern  but  in 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


31 


§  10 

coloring  more  delicate  than  the  hall;  the  tints  should  be 
lighter.  Renaissance  scrolls  are  frequently  employed  in  rich 
embossed  effects  as  are  also  suggestions  of  materials  such 
as  silk,  velvet,  etc.  However,  many  dainty  naturalistic 
effects  are  used  in  parlor  decoration,  particularly  in  small 
houses.  The  parlor  or  drawing  room  is  essentially  an 
assembly  room  for  stage  or  dress  occasions;  it  is  used 
almost  exclusively  in  the  evenings  and  its  paper  should  be 
considered  so  as  to  delicately  harmonize  with  the  suggest¬ 
iveness  of  evening  dress  and  dainty  surroundings.  It  is 
usually  the  most  pretentious  room  in  the  house  and  calls  for 
an  excellent  quality  of  goods,  showing  skilful  and  chaste, 
rather  than  old  and  aggressive,  designs.  The  ceiling 
should  usually  be  papered  in  plain  tints  or  hand-decorated 
in  distemper. 

3.  The  Dining  Room. — The  dining  room  should  be  cheer¬ 
ful  in  color  and  designed  rather  architecturally  in  subdivision, 
with  a  plain  dado  in  wood  or  panel  effect  and  fanciful  frieze 
in  tapestry  effect  with  landscapes  or  figures.  The  side  wall 
between  the  dado  and  frieze  may  be  in  plain  colors  or  in 
panels,  but  when  panels  are  used  in  the  side  walls  they  should 
be  avoided  in  the  dado.  The  entire  side  wall  may  be  omitted 
in  the  frieze  treatment  and  its  panels  may  be  extended  entirely 
to  the  ceiling,  filling  them  completely  with  a  tapestry  effect 
repeated  at  intervals.  The  ceiling  is  often  left  plain  or 
rendered  in  distemper  to  harmonize  with  the  side-wall  treat¬ 
ment,  or  it  may  be  papered  suggestive  of  wood  paneling  or 
embossed  leather.  Frequently  a  bronze  effect  is  attempted, 
tufted  at  intervals  with  metallic  buttons. 

4.  The  Library. — The  library  should  be  rich  but  subdued 
in  color,  in  tapestry  or  fabric  effects  if  possible,  and  in  any 
case  suitable  to  the  style  of  furnishings;  of  these  the  pre¬ 
vailing  taste  is  Gothic,  Italian,  Renaissance,  Flemish,  Eliza¬ 
bethan,  Empire,  etc.  Other  rooms  on  the  first  floor  of  the 
house  are  usually  morning  rooms,  reception  rooms,  or,  possi¬ 
bly,  breakfast  rooms,  each  of  which  should  be  rather  more 
delicate  in  furnishing  than  the  parlor  and  dining  room,  as 
they  are  essentially  rooms  that  are  used  in  daytime  and 


32 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


§  10 


their  decorative  elements  should  be  so  considered.  Papers 
aie  seldom  specially  designed  for  the  three  last-named 
rooms,  but  the  decorator  is  frequently  called  on  to  make 
selections  for  them  and  his  judgment  should  be  governed 
accordingly. 


5.  The  Kitchen. — The  essential  point  in  a  kitchen  wall 
covering  is  utility,  something  that  will  reflect  much  light 


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Fig. 20 


and  keep  clean.  The  ideal  wall  covering  for  a  kitchen 
would  be  tiles  or  enamel  brick;  therefore,  wallpaper  patterns 
that  aie  geometrical  in  design,  suggestive  of  tile  or  brick¬ 
work,  are  entirely  suitable,  and  designs  of  this  character  can 
be  obtained  in  varnished  papers,  which  are  washable  and 
can  be  kept  nearly  as  smooth  and  clean  as  tile  itself. 

6.  Bedrooms.  Bedrooms  should  contain  delicate  bright 


10 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


33 


designs  in  cheerful  decorative  or  naturalistic  patterns  of 
flowers.  Stripe  effects  with  floral  details,  such  as  are 
shown  in  Figs.  20  and  21,  are  exceedingly  popular,  but  the 
frieze  treatment  should  always  be  included,  as  the  appear¬ 
ance  of  the  stripes  running  from  the  ceiling  to  the  floor  is 
decidedly  distasteful. 


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An  exceedingly  popular  treatment  for  bedrooms  and  sitting 
rooms  consists  of  a  subdivision  of  the  wall  into  three  parts, 
the  lower  two-thirds  of  which  is  covered  with  a  plain  tint  or 
two-tone  stripe,  and  the  upper  parts  with  a  rather  large  and 


34 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


§  10 


brilliantly  designed  floral  pattern.  A  two-tone  green  stripe 
for  the  lower  portion  with  a  poppy  frieze  is  very  popular  for 
bedrooms,  as  poppies  are  symbolic  of  sleep.  But  other 


Fig. 22 


combinations  can  be  used,  such  as  a  two-tone  yellow  under 
a  frieze  of  lilacs  or  Wistaria. 

7.  Children's  bedrooms  have  been  given  special  attention 
by  the  designer  and  the  decorator.  Considerations  of  the 


10 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


35 


lively  imagination  that  children  possess  have  been  expressed 
in  wallpaper  design,  as  the  child  mind  is  likely  to  convert 
everything  about  it  into  a  topic  of  conversation  or  wonder; 


Fig.  23 


therefore,  to  please  these  infant  fancies  the  English  manu¬ 
facturer  has  reproduced  illustrations  of  Mother  Goose  melo¬ 
dies  in  a  wallpaper  pattern,  which  is  reproduced  in  Fig.  22; 
while  in  Fig.  23  is  a  design  indicative  of  the  different  months 
of  the  year,  suggested  by  drawings  by  Kate  Greenway.  The 


36 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


10 


propriety  of  these  elements  in  wallpaper  design,  from  an 
artistic  standpoint,  is  hardly  to  be  considered,  since  the  deco¬ 
rative  element  in  this  case  is  subordinated  to  the  educational 
and  recreative  element  that  must  exist  in  the  nursery. 


Fig.  24 

A  more  decorative  treatment  is  shown  in  Fig.  24,  which  is 
a  wallpaper  pattern  entitled  Snapping  the  Whip.  Nothing 
could  be  jollier  or  merrier  than  this  continuous  series  about 
the  nursery  walls,  repeating,  as  it  does,  the  same  individual 


Fig.  25 

every  fourth  figure,  and  an  immense  field  of  decorative 
design  is  opened  up  by  these  suggestions.  Another  design 
of  the  same  character  is  shown  in  Fig.  25;  it  portrays 
characters  from  the  story  of  The  Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin. 


10 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


37 


18.  Freedom  in  Choice  of  Designs. — The  process  of 
manufacture  of  wallpapers  imposes  very  little  restraint  on 
the  designer.  He  is  free  to  adopt  any  idea  or  type  for  the 
subject  of  his  design,  and  to  this  excessive  license  is  due 
the  existence  of  many  exceedingly  inartistic  patterns  that 
are  perpetrated  in  the  name  of  wall  coverings. 

There  is  probably  no  branch  of  design  that  permits  the 
craftsman  to  enter  so  unrestrainedly  into  naturalistic  patterns 
as  wall  decoration.  Such  patterns  are  not  difficult  for 
the  manufacturer  to  reproduce.  The  paper  hanger  buys 
them  and  thereby  makes  them  good  sellers,  and  uneducated 
people  purchase  them  because  the  flowers  look  “so  natural,” 
without  considering  whether  this  naturalistic  appearance 
is  an  element  of  good  design  or  not.  The  French  and 
American  designers  are  most  largely  responsible  for  this 
class  of  work,  for  among  them  are  found  many  clever 
craftsmen  who  allow  their  skill  to  eclipse  their  good 
taste.  The  patterns  invented  by  the  French  are  exceedingly 
elaborate  and  the  execution  of  the  work  is  of  marvelous 
excellence. 

Fig.  26  illustrates  an  elaborate  French  pattern  that 
required  thirty-five  impressions  to  reproduce.  French  designs 
are  used  to  a  large  extent  by  American  designers  in  the 
following  manner:  An  elaborate  pattern,  such  as  that  shown 
in  Fig.  26,  is  copied  and  simplified  in  color  and  detail  so 
that  a  fair  reproduction  of  it  may  be  printed  in  less  than 
half  the  original  number  of  colors.  Thus  the  hand-printed 
paper  of  France  becomes  the  machine-printed  paper  of 
America.  This  may  seem  easy  at  first,  but  it  requires  much 
ingenuity  and  is  usually  the  work  of  a  large  class  of  crafts¬ 
men  who  are  clever  in  execution  but  who  possess  little 
inventive  ability  and  power  to  originate  new  designs. 

Fig.  27  is  an  American  design,  printed  by  a  New  York 
firm,  using  twelve  colors  on  a  plain  white  ribbed  paper, 
in  the  form  of  a  spot  pattern  composed  of  bunches  of 
pink  primroses  and  cream -colored  narcissus.  This  is  a 
side-to-side  repeat  of  two  distinct  groups  of  flowers  form¬ 
ing  alternate  horizontal  bands.  Each  repeat  is  arranged 


9 


Fig.  26 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


39 


§  10 


Fig  27 


40  WALLPAPER  DESIGNING  §  10 

within  a  space  18  inches  by  21-g-  inches.  This  pattern  is  an 
example  of  the  style  of  naturalistic  treatment  that  should  be 
studiously  avoided  by  the  beginner.  The  best  critics  char¬ 
acterize  this  style  of  rendering  as  bunches  of  flowers  thrown 


Fig  28 

at  the  wall.  They  have  the  appearance  of  cut  flowers  and 
their  separate  stems  are  painfully  evident.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  delicate  portrayal  of  a  series  of 
branches  over  the  entire  wall  is  likely  to  become  monot¬ 
onous.  The  side  walls  of  the  room  would  be  inappropriate 


10 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


41 


for  such  delicate  details  in  reality;  therefore,  the  real  appear¬ 
ance  of  the  flowers  should  be  avoided  and  they  should  be 
rendered  with  delicate  conventional  treatment  that  does  not 
pretend  to  be  a  counterfeit  of  nature.  Where  a  natural¬ 
istic  rendering  is  attempted,  a  treatment  like  that  shown  in 
Fig.  28  is  much  more  suitable.  This  is  a  French  hand  print, 
and  the  effect  produced  is  that  of  a  mass  of  green  foliage 
entirely  covering  the  wall,  emphasized  here  and  there  by 
spots  of  sunlight  and  bunches  of  brilliant  blossoms.  The 
idea  indicated  in  this  pattern  can  be  carried  out  to  an  almost 
unlimited  extent  with  any  other  plant  growth  without  in  any 
way  violating  any  strict  principles  of  design  or  of  the  nature 
of  the  growth. 

Rococo  effects  in  connection  with  naturalistic  flowers, 
Fig.  15,  have  always  been  popular,  particularly  in  cheap 
papers  with  plenty  of  gold.  These  suit  the  taste  of  a  cer¬ 
tain  class  of  people,  and  together  with  certain  gaudy  floral 
patterns  they  find  a  ready  sale  in  the  decorative  treatment 
of  small  houses  that  are  built  by  the  block  and  literally 
papered  by  the  wholesale.  They  form  easy  patterns  for 
the  paper  hanger  to  select,  and  usually  suit  a  class  of 
people  that  look  for  brilliancy  rather  than  harmony  of 
effect.  The  best  way  to  overcome  the  demand  for  such 
patterns  is  to  educate  the  people  to  appreciate  better  and 
simpler  patterns. 

The  scale  of  the  pattern  and  the  repeat  should  undoubt¬ 
edly  be  in  accordance  with  the  size  of  the  room  in  which 
they  are  to  appear.  A  large  pattern,  such  as  shown  in 
Fig.  9,  though  entirely  appropriate  and  harmonious  in  a 
large  room,  would  be  greatly  out  of  place  in  the  ordinary 
living  rooms  of  a  small  house. 

In  Fig.  29  is  shown  a  French  pattern  designed  for  the 
market  in  1904,  and  though  not  extreme  in  design  pos¬ 
sesses  no  great  dignity  or  originality.  The  color  effect, 
however,  is  very  pleasing  and  there  is  little  tendency  for  it 
to  become  monotonous,  as  the  design  is  so  severely  conven¬ 
tional.  Fig.  30,  another  design  from  the  same  source,  con¬ 
sists  of  an  almost  childish  conception  of  a  mixture  of  tree 


42 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


§  10 


Fig.  29 


10 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


43 


foliage  and  huge  sunflowers,  and  a  variety  of  small  flowers 
and  grasses  in  conventional  perspective. 

Exaggerated  floral  effects,  such  as  prevailed  in  French 
designs  a  few  years  ago,  are  fast  disappearing,  and  public 
taste  seems  to  be  gradually  improving. 


Fig.  30 


19.  Examples  of  Prevailing  Styles. — Effects  in 
single  color  or  two  or  more  tones  are  apparently  much 
more  in  demand  now,  and  English  designs  are  undoubt¬ 
edly  far  in  advance,  in  taste  and  artistic  merits,  of  most 
of  the  French  or  American  patterns.  Fig.  31  shows  a 
pattern,  called  Courtland,  which  is  an  English  hand  print. 


44 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


8  10 


Fig.  31 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


45 


§  10 

This  is  an  arrangement  of  decorative  lilies  and  leaf  scrolls, 
rendered  in  a  color  scheme  composed  of  blue  and  green- 
gray  with  a  touch  of  dull  yellow  in  stems  and  stamens. 
There  are  several  impressions  in  all  and  the  pattern  is  very 
skilfully  treated.  The  flowers  are  very  large,  the  original 
measuring  more  than  3  inches  across,  and  the  color  render¬ 
ing  is  so  delicate  that  it  makes  a  perfectly  satisfactory  wall 
covering  and  an  excellent  background,  possessing  not  a 
harsh  line  or  conspicuous  tone.  In  Fig.  32  is  an  English 
lithographed  wallpaper  in  graded  tones  of  red,  green,  yellow, 
and  brown,  in  which  an  effect  is  obtained  as  though  it  were 
executed  by  hand.  This  is  an  effect  obtained  in  lithographed 
papers  only. 

In  some  of  the  higher-grade  papers,  stencil  plates  are 
used  and  the  colors  are  applied  with  a  brush,  the  harsh 
outlines  being  removed  while  the  color  is  still  wet,  after  the 
plate  has  been  lifted.  The  effect  of  this  is  to  produce  a 
paper  where  the  colors  are  graduated  one  into  another, 
similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  32.  But  these  results  are 
obtained  only  after  great  expense  and  tedious  manipulation. 

20.  Designer  Must  Be  Observant  of  Public  Wants. 
The  successful  designer  must  keep  in  touch  with  the  times, 
must  be  constantly  alert  for  suggestions,  must  observe 
foreign  patterns  that  use  particular  processes,  and  endeavor 
to  work  up  similar  patterns  suitable  to  American  processes. 
Manufacturers  work  up  their  designs  a  year  or  more  in 
advance  of  the  market.  In  August  of  each  year,  the  wall¬ 
paper  men  gather  in  New  York  to  show  their  new  goods  to 
sell  to  jobbers  all  over  the  eastern  part  of  the  country. 
Sometimes,  later  in  the  year,  they  gather  in  other  large 
cities  for  a  similar  purpose,  and  all  experimental  patterns 
must  be  out  for  execution  at  that  time.  Prevailing  indica¬ 
tions  of  modern  treatments  suggest:  First,  different  develop¬ 
ments  of  the  crown  frieze  effect  popular  at  the  present 
time,  executed  both  in  natural  growth  and  in  conventional 
and  decorative  floral  and  landscape  arrangements;  second, 
decorative  series,  consisting  of  frieze,  landscapes,  etc.,  in 


46 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


10 


imitation  of  mural  paintings;  third,  small  conventional  diaper 
patterns  in  fabric  effects  with  borders  to  match.  New 
designs  for  cheaper  patterns  in  entire  sets  will  be  in  demand 
as  usual;  the  styles  of  these  remain  about  the  same. 


Fig.  32 


The  designer  should  always  consult  his  local  dealer,  look 
over  his  newest  stock,  and  make  every  effort  to  learn  what 
is  being  done  in  the  designing  world.  Those  situated  in 
large  cities  have  an  advantage  on  account  of  the  greater 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


47 


§  10 

variety  displayed,  and  the  opportunity  of  observing  the 
latest  novelties  and  finest  goods. 

The  experienced  designer  would  do  well,  when  convenient, 
to  submit  his  designs  to  some  local  dealer,  explaining  his 
idea  of  the  use  of  the  design  and  asking  advice  as  to  a 
probable  buyer  among  manufacturers.  The  designer  must 
be  particularly  sure  before  submitting  a  design  for  sale  that 
it  is  technically  correct  for  reproduction.  No  matter  how 
good  a  design  is  it  will  not  be  accepted  if  it  cannot 
be  printed,  as  manufacturers  have  no  time  to  redraw 
patterns.  Certain  advice  from  a  manufacturer  or  an  estab¬ 
lished  designer  would  be  most  valuable,  but  it  is  not  easily 
obtained  even  in  communities  where  both  manufacturers 
and  designers  abound.  The  former  are  usually  too  busy  to 
enter  into  details,  and  the  latter,  jealous  of  their  calling,  are 
not  anxious  to  explain  the  facts.  But  occasionally  a  wall¬ 
paper  manufacturer  will  observe  merit  in  a  designer’s  work, 
although  he  is  not  anxious  to  purchase  the  design,  and  will 
suggest  to  the  designer  lines  whereon  he  should  work  in 
order  to  arrive  at  more  popular  results. 


THE 


AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


PART  1 

THE  FIVE  ORDERS 


BY  WILLIAM  R.  WARE 


Formerly  Professor  of  Architecture  in  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology  and  in  Columbia  University 


THIRD  EDITION 


SCRANTON 


INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK  COMPANY 
1904 


NOTICE 

The  elements  of  architecture  according'  to  the  pro¬ 
portions  first  established  by  the  Italian  architect, 
Giacomo  Barozzi  da  Vignola,  in  the  year  1563,  have 
become  identified  with  that  writer’s  name,  so  that  at 
the  present  time  the  term  “  Vignola ”  is  almost  univer¬ 
sally  used  to  indicate  a  treatise  on  the  five  orders 
of  Classic  Architecture.  This  Instruction  Paper  is  a 
reprint  of  Part  1  of  The  American  Vignola,  prepared 
by  Professor  Ware  foi*  the  especial  use  of  American 
students. 


Copyright,  1902,  by  William  R.  Ware 


Copyright,  1904,  by  International  Textbook  Company 


All  rights  reserved 


PREFACE  TO  THIRD  EDITION 


This  edition  of  “The  American  Vignola”  is  a  reprint  of  the 
first  and  second  editions,  with  a  few  changes  and  extensions 
of  the  text  suggested  by  the  author.  The  text  illustrations 
have  been  redrawn,  and  have  been  enlarged  so  as  to  be  of 
more  practical  value  to  the  student.  The  volume  has  been 
reduced  to  octavo  size,  and  the  plates  have  been  inserted  on 
guards.  It  is  hoped  that  the  advantages  gained  by  these 
changes  will  be  apparent  to  those  students  for  whom  this 
book  is  especially  published,  and  that  suggestions  for  further 
improvement  will  be  submitted  to  the  publishers  as  they  may 
occur  to  the  reader. 

International  Textbook  Company. 


PREFACE  TO  FIRST  EDITION 


In  January,  1859,  I  went  from  Mr.  Edward  Cabot’s  office 
in  Boston,  where  I  had  been  for  two  or  three  years,  to  join 
the  little  company  of  half  a  dozen  young  men  who  were 
studying  architecture  in  the  Studio  Building  in  Tenth  Street, 
under  the  inspiration  of  Mr.  Richard  Hunt.  Mr.  Hunt  had 
just  returned  from  Paris  and  was  eager  to  impart  to  younger 
men,  though  we  were  not  much  his  juniors,  what  he  had 
learned  in  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts  and  in  work  upon  the 
New  Louvre.  We  had  all,  I  believe,  had  more  or  less  of 
office  experience,  but  those  were  the  days  when  the  Gothic 
Revival  was  at  its  height,  and  Mr.  Hunt  found  most  of  us 
unfamiliar  with  Classical  details  and  quite  unskilled  in  their 
use.  I,  at  any  rate,  knew  hardly  a  touch  of  them,  and  I 
remember  well  the  day  when,  as  I  was  carefully  drawing  out 
a  Doric  Capital  according  to  the  measurements  given  in  my 
Vignola ,  Mr.  Hunt  took  the  pencil  out  of  my  hand  and, 
setting  aside  the  whole  apparatus  of  Modules  and  Minutes , 

3 


4 


PREFACE 


showed  me  how  to  divide  the  height  of  my  Capital  into 
thirds,  and  those  into  thirds,  and  those  again  into  thirds,  thus 
getting  the  sixths,  ninths,  eighteenths,  twenty-sevenths  and 
fifty-fourths  of  a  Diameter  which  the  rules  required,  without 
employing  any  larger  divisor  than  two  or  three. 

It  seemed  as  if  this  method,  so  handy  with  the  Doric 
Capital,  might  be  applied  to  other  things,  and  I  forthwith 
set  myself  to  studying  the  details  of  all  the  Orders,  and  to 
devising  for  my  own  use  simple  rules  for  drawing  them  out. 
The  present  work  presents  the  results  of  these  endeavors. 
Experience  in  the  class-room  has,  meanwhile,  amplified  and 
extended  them,  and  they  have  at  many  points  been  improved 
by  the  suggestions  of  my  colleagues. 

I  am  particularly  indebted  to  Professor  Hamlin  and  to 
Mr.  W.  T.  Partridge  for  some  ingenious  applications  of 
the  45-degree  line  to  the  Doric  Entablature  and  to  the 
Corinthian  Capital,  and  for  an  analogous  employment  of 
the  60-degree  line. 

Finding  that  the  plates  in  which,  for  the  convenience  of 
my  own  students,  I  have  embodied  these  results  are  some¬ 
what  in  demand  by  others,  I  now  publish  them  in  the  present 
volume,  adding  such  text  and  marginal  illustrations  as  the 
subject  matter  seems  to  require.  The  plates  have  been 
drawn  out  for  me  anew  by  Mr.  Partridge,  as  have  also  most 
of  the  Illustrations.  The  rest  have  been  taken  from  stand¬ 
ard  publications,  especially  from  Biihlmann’s  “ Architecture  of 
Classical  Antiquity  and  the  Renaissance ,”  which  has  furnished 
twenty-six  of  the  figures. 

The  forms  and  proportions  here  set  forth  are,  in  the 
main,  those  worked  out  by  Giacomo  Barozzi  da  Vignola  and 
first  published  by  him  at  Rome  in  the  year  1563,  as  those 
which,  in  his  judgment,  best  embodied  the  best  practice  of 
the  ancient  Romans.  Other  systems  have  been  presented 
by  Alberti,  Palladio,  Scamozzi,  Serlio,  Sir  William  Chambers, 
and  others.  But  Vignola’s  Orders  have  generally  been 
accepted  as  the  standard.  His  works  have  been  frequently 
republished,  and  recourse  must  be  had  to  them  for  minute 
information  in  regard  to  details.  But  the  dimensions  given 


PREFACE 


5 


in  this  book,  and  the  methods  of  determining  them  here 
described,  will  suffice  for  the  execution  of  all  drawings  and 
designs  which  are  made  to  a  small  scale. 

This  volume  is  concerned  only  with  Columns,  Pilasters  and 
Entablatures,  Pediments,  Pedestals  and  Balustrades.  The 
employment  of  these  Elements  in  the  Composition  of  Doors 
and  Windows,  Wall  Surfaces,  external  and  internal,  Stair¬ 
cases,  Towers  and  Spires,  Arches  and  Arcades,  Vaults  and 
Domes,  and  other  architectural  features,  will,  I  hope,  at  a 
later  day  be  made  the  subject  of  a  separate  treatise  which 
will  be  the  natural  sequel  to  this  one. 

After  the  chief  part  of  this  volume  was  in  press  my  atten¬ 
tion  was  directed  to  a  somewhat  similar  work  by  the 
celebrated  James  Gibbs,  the  architect  of  St.  Martin’s-in-the- 
Fields  and  of  St.  Mary-le-Strand.  He  published  in  London, 
in  1732,  a  series  of  plates  showing  the  Orders  and  their 
applications  with  a  brief  descriptive  text.  The  title  page 
reads:  “  Rules  for  Drawing  the  several  Parts  of  Architecture 
in  a  more  Exact  and  Easy  Manner  than  has  been  heretofore 
Practiced,  by  which  all  Fractions,  in  dividing  the  Principal 
Members  and  their  Parts,  are  Avoided.”  The  book  begins 
with  an  Add?'ess  to  the  Reader  which  opens  as  follows: 

“Upon  examination  of  the  common  ways  of  drawing  the 
Five  Orders  of  Architecture,  I  thought  there  might  be  a 
method  found  out  so  to  divide  the  principal  Members  and 
their  Parts,  both  as  to  their  Heights  and  Projections,  as  to 
avoid  Fractions.  And  having  tried  one  Order  with  success, 
I  proceeded  to  another,  till  at  length  I  was  satisfied  it  would 
answer  my  intention  in  all;  and  I  doubt  not  but  that  the 
Method  here  proposed  will  be  acknowledged  by  proper 
Judges  to  be  the  most  exact,  as  well  as  the  easiest,  that  hath 
as  yet  been  published.” 

I  find  on  examining  the  plates  that,  though  they  follow  an 
entirely  different  system,  they  have  anticipated  some  of  the 
methods  of  the  present  work. 

WILLIAM  R.  WARE. 

October  1,  1902. 

School  of  Architecture,  Columbia  University. 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


THE  FIVE  ORDERS 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  A  building  is  a  shelter  from  rain,  sun,  and  wind; 
this  implies  a  Roof,  and  Walls  to  support  it.  If  the  walls 
entirely  enclose  the  space  within,  there  are  Doorways  for 
access,  and  Windows  for  light.  Roofs  and  walls,  doors  and 
windows  are  the  essential  features  of  buildings. 

2.  Roofs  may  be  flat,  sloping,  or  curved.  A  roof  with 
one  slope  is  called  a  Lean-To ,  Fig.  1.  When  two  sloping 
roofs  rest  upon  parallel  walls  and  lean  against  each  other, 
they  meet  in  a  horizontal  Ridge ,  Fig.  2,  at  the  top,  and  form 
a  Gable  at  each  end.  Roofs  that  rise  from  the  same  wall  in 


Fig.  1  Fig.  2  Fig.  3 


opposite  directions  form  a  Horizontal  Valley,  Fig.  3,  at  the 
wall.  If  the  walls  make  a  projecting  angle,  the  roofs  inter¬ 
sect  in  an  inclined  line  called  a  Hip,  Fig.  4.  If  the  walls  meet 
in  a  reentering  angle,  the  inclined  line  of  intersection  is  called 

For  notice  of  copyright,  see  page  immediately  following  the  title  page 


10 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


11 


a  Valley.  Circular  walls  carry  conical,  Fig.  5  (a),  or  domical 
roofs,  Fig.  5  (b). 

If  there  is  more  than  one  story,  the  flat  roof  of  the  lower 
story  becomes  the  Floor  of  the  story  above.  If  the  roof 
extends  beyond  the  wall  that  supports  it,  the  projection  is 


called  the  Eaves ,  Fig.  6.  If  the  wall  also  projects,  to  support 
the  extension  of  the  roof,  the  projection  is  called  a  Cornice , 
Fig.  7.  The  principal  member  of  a  cornice,  which  projects 
like  a  shelf,  is  called  a  Corona ,  Fig.  8. 

3.  Walls  are  generally  made  wider  just  at  the  bottom, 
so  as  to  get  a  better  bearing  on  the  ground.  This  projection 
is  the  Base,  Fig.  9.  A  similar  projection  at  the  top  is  called 
a  Cap ,  or,  if  it  projects  much,  a  Cornice ,  as  has  been  said. 
A  low  wall  is  called  a  Parapet.  A  short  piece  of  wall  about 
as  long  as  it  is  thick  is  called  a  Post,  and  if  it  supports  some¬ 
thing,  a  Pedestal,  Fig.  10;  the  part  between  its  Cap  and  Base 


is  then  the  Die.  A  tall  post  is  called  a  Pier,  Fig.  11,  if  it  is 
square,  and  a  Column  if  it  is  round.  Caps  of  piers  and 
columns  are  called  Capitals,  and  the  part  between  the  Cap 
and  the  Base,  the  Shaft.  The  flat  upper  member  of  a  Capital 
is  called  the  Abacus. 


Golonn&de 

Fig. 12 


Arcade 

Fig.  13 


12 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


4.  A  beam  that  spans  the  space  between  two  piers  or 
columns,  or  between  a  pier  or  column  and  a  wall,  is  called 
an  Architrave ,  or  Epistyle.  Above  it,  between  the  Architrave 
and  the  Cornice,  there  is  generally  a  little  strip  of  wall  called 
the  Frieze.  Architrave,  Frieze,  and  Cornice  constitute  the 
Entablature.  A  series  of  columns  is  called  a  Colonnade, 
Fig.  12.  The  spaces  between  piers  or  columns  are  some¬ 
times  spanned  by  Arches,  a  series  of  which  is  called  an 
Arcade,  Fig.  13. 

The  space  between  two  walls  is  sometimes  covered  by  a 
sort  of  continuous  arch,  called  a  Vault,  instead  of  by  a  floor 
or  roof,  Fig.  14. 

The  under  surface  of  a  beam  or  architrave  is  called  its 
Soffit,  and  the  same  name  is  used  also  for  the  hitrados,  or 

under  surface  of  an  arch  or  vault. 
The  upper  surface,  or  back  of  an 
arch,  is  called  the  Extrados,  and 
the  triangular  space  of  wall  above 
is  called  a  Spandrel. 

The  Wall,  the  Pier,  and  the  Col¬ 
umn,  with  or  without  a  Pedestal, 
constitute  the  chief  supporting 
members;  the  Frieze  and  Cornice, 
with  the  roof  that  rests  upon  them, 
constitute  the  chief  part  of  the  load  they  carry.  The 
Architrave,  the  Arches,  and  the  Spandrels  form  part  of 
the  load,  relatively  to  what  is  below  them,  but  are  sup¬ 
porting  members  relatively  to  what  is  above  them. 

5.  Besides  being  'valuable  as  a  shelter,  a  building  may 
be  in  itself  a  noble  and  delightful  object,  and  architects  are 
builders  who,  by  giving  a  building  good  proportions  and 
fine  details,  and  by  employing  beautiful  materials,  make 
it  valuable  on  its  own  account,  independently  of  its  uses. 
Their  chief  instruments  in  this  work  are  Drawings,  both 
of  the  whole  building  and,  on  a  larger  scale,  of  the  different 
features  that  compose  it  and  of  their  details,  which  are  often 
drawn  full  size.  These  drawings  comprise  Plans,  Sectio?is, 


§11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


13 


Elevations,  and  Perspective  Views,  Fig.  15.  They  serve  to 
explain  the  intention  of  the  architects  to  their  clients  and  to 
their  workmen. 


Fig.  15 


MOULDINGS— PLATE  I 

6.  The  simplest  decorative  details  and  those  that  are 
most  universally  used  in  buildings  are  called  Mouldings. 


Fill  el 


Fig. 17 


Fig.  18 


Fig. 16 


They  are  plane  or  cylindrical  surfaces,  convex,  concave,  or 
of  double  curvature,  and  they  are  sometimes  plain  and  some¬ 
times  enriched  by  carving.  They  are  called  by  various 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


14 


§11 


technical  names:  Greek,  Latin,  Italian,  French,  and  English. 
The  cross-section  of  a  moulding  is  called  its  Profile. 

A  small  plane  surface  is  called  a  Ba?id,  Face ,  or  Fascia , 
Fig.  16,  and  if  very  small  a  Fillet ,  Raised  or  Sunk ,  Fig.  17, 
Horizontal ,  Vertical,  or  Inclined. 


Fig.  19 


Fig.  20 


Fig.  21 


A  convex  moulding  is  called  an  Ovolo,  Fig  18,  Torus,  Fig.  19, 
or  Three-Quarter  Moulding,  Fig.  20,  according  to  the  amount 
of  the  curvature  of  its  profile.  A  small  Torus  is  called  a 
Bead,  Fig.  21,  Astragal,  or  Reed,  and  an  elliptical  one,  a  Thumb 
Moulding,  Fig.  22.  Concave  mouldings  are,  in  like  manner, 


Cavetto 
Fig.  23 


Fig. 24 


called  Cavetto,  Fig.  23,  Scotia,  Fig.  24,  or  Three-Quarter  Hollow, 
but  the  term  Scotia  (darkness)  is  often  used  for  any  hollow 
moulding.  A  Cavetto  tangent  to  a  plane  surface  is  called 
a  Conge,  Fig.  25. 


Fig.  25 


Fig.  26  (a) 


Fig.  26  (*) 


A  moulding  with  double  curvature  is  called  a  Cyma,  or  Wave 
Moulding.  If  the  tangents  to  the  curve  at  top  and  bottom  are 
horizontal,  as  if  the  profile  were  cut  from  a  horizontal  wavy 
line,  it  is  called  a  Cyma  Recta,  Fig.  26;  if  vertical,  as  if  cut 
from  a  vertical  line,  a  Cyma  Reversa,  Fig.  27.  The  Cyma 
Recta  is  sometimes  called  Cyma  Reversa,  Fig.  26  (c) ,  when 


11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


15 


it  is  turned  upside  down.  But  this  leads  to  confusion.  The 
Cymas  vary  also^  Fig.  28,  in  the  shape  and  relative  size  of 
their  concave  and  convex  elements.  A  small  Cyma  is  called 
a  Cymatium.  A  small  moulding  placed  above  a  Band,  or  any 
larger  moulding,  as  a  decoration,  is  also  called  a  Cymatium , 
Fig.  29,  whatever  its  shape. 


Fig.  26  (c)  Fig.  27  (a)  Fig.  27  ( b )  Fig.  27  ( c ) 


When  a  convex  and  a  concave  moulding,  instead  of  being 
tangent,  come  together  at  an  angle,  they  constitute  a  Beak 
Moulding ,  Fig.  30. 

Some  architectural  features,  such  as  Bases,  Caps,  and  Balus¬ 
ters,  consist  entirely  of  mouldings.  Others  consist  mainly  of 
plane  surfaces,  mouldings  being  employed  to  mark  the  bound¬ 
ary  between  different  features,  as  between  the  Architrave  and 
Frieze,  or  between  different  members  of  the  same  feature,  as 


/ 


Fig.  30 


Fig.  28 


Fig.  29 


between  the  Shaft  of  a  column  and  its  Capital,  Fig.  31.  In 
these  cases  the  mouldings,  since  they  occur  on  the  edges  of 
the  stone  blocks,  indicate,  while  they  conceal,  the  position 
of  the  joints  of  the  masonry.  Mouldings  are  often  placed 
also  in  the  internal  angle  where  two  plane  surfaces  meet,  as 
is  the  case  between  the  Frieze  and  the  Corona  of  the  Cornice, 
and  under  the  Abacus  of  the  Capital.  When  placed  upon  the 
external  angle  formed  by  two  planes,  they  are,  in  the  Gothic 


16 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


Styles,  Fig.  32,  often  cut  in,  so  as  to  lie  down  below  the 
surface  of  both  planes;  but  in  the  Classical  Styles,  they  pro- 


Fig.  31 


ject  beyond  the  plane  of  one  of  the  surfaces,  like  a  little 
cornice,  as  is  often  seen  in  the  Abacus  of  a  Capital. 


Horizontal  Mouldings,  separating  plane  surfaces,  are  called 
a  Slrhig  Course ,  Fig.  33. 


TABLE  OF  MOULDINGS,  PLATE  1 

Plane. — Face,  Band,  or  Fascia;  Beveled,  Inclined,  or 
Splay  Face;  Fillet,  vertical,  horizontal,  or  beveled,  Raised 
or  Sunk. 


! 


PLATE  I 


MOLE 


f 


.a 


£' 


o 

£ 

o 

t— ( 

> 

£ 

< 

o 

Pi 

w 

*-H 

<1 

W 

ffl 

6-| 


63 


.Is 


*  § 
•C  * 


■** 

|"1 
C)  ■v* 


3 


TOR.U5 


3/4-  R.OUND 


SCOTIA 


3/4-  HOLLOW 


ARCS 


O  F 


C I RCLES 


BEAK 


m’ld’gs 


THUMB  MLDO 


VENETIAN  MLDG 


ELLIPTICAL 


SCOTI/% 


AND  HYPERBOLIC  ARCS 


FACE  OR  FASCIA 


CyJIR.K.ED 


BEADS 


SUNK 


1S538 


§11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


17 


Convex. — Ovolo,  or  Quarter  Round;  Torus,  or  Half  Round; 
Thumb  Moulding,  or  Elliptical  Torus;  Three-Quarter  Round; 
Bead,  Astragal,  or  Reed;  Three-Quarter  Bead. 

Concave. — Cavetto,  or  Quarter  Hollow;  Conge;  Half  Hol¬ 
low;  Scotia;  Three-Quarter  Hollow. 

Dotible  Curvature. — Cyma  Recta;  Cyma  Reversa;  Cyma- 
tium;  Beak  Moulding. 

Besides  the  differences  of  size  and  shape  already  men¬ 
tioned,  and  indicated  in  the  table,  mouldings  of  the  same 
name  differ  in  the  kind  of  curve  they  employ.  They  may 
be  arcs  either  of  circles,  ellipses,  parabolas,  or  hyperbolas, 
or  of  any  other  curve. 

7.  Styles. — Different  systems  of  construction  have  pre¬ 
vailed  among  different  races,  some  employing  only  the 
Beam  and  Column,  some  also  the  Arch  and  Vault.  In  the 
choice  of  mouldings,  also,  some  have  adopted  one  set  of 
forms,  some  another.  The  forms  employed  by  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  constitute  what  are  called  the  Classical  Styles; 
those  used  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the  Byzantine,  Romanesque, 
and  Gothic  Styles.  Some  of  the  Gothic  mouldings  have  spe¬ 
cial  names,  such  as  Boltel,  Scroll,  etc. 

At  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  about  400  years  ago,  the 
Classical  styles  were  revived,  as  the  Medieval  styles  have 
been  during  the  last  hundred  years.  Both  are  now  in  use. 
The  styles  of  Egypt,  India,  and  China  are  employed  only 
occasionally  and  as  a  matter  of  curiosity. 


THE  ORDERS 

8.  In  the  Classical  styles,  several  varieties  of  Column  and 
Entablature  are  used;  these  are  called  the  Orders.  Each 
order,  Fig.  34,  comprises  a  Column  with  Base,  Shaft,  and 
Capital,  with  or  without  a  Pedestal,  with  its  Base,  Die,  and  Cap, 
and  is  crowned  by  an  Entablature,  consisting  of  Architrave, 
Frieze,  and  Cornice.  The  Entablature  is  generally  about  one- 
fourth  as  high  as  the  Column,  and  the  Pedestal  one-third, 
more  or  less. 


18 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


11 


The  principal  member  of  the  Cornice  is  the  Corona, 
Fig.  35.  Above  the  Corona,  the  Cornice  is  regularly 
terminated  by  a  member  originally  designed  to  serve  as 
a  gutter  to  receive  the  water  running  down  the  roof.  It 

generally  consists  of  a  large  Cyma 
Recta,  though  the  Ovolo  and  the 
Cavetto  are  often  used.  It  is  called 
the  Cymatium,  in  spite  of  its  large 
size,  and  whatever  its  shape. 

Note.  —  The  word  Cymatium  thus 
has  three  meanings:  (1)  A  small  Cyma; 
(2)  a  small  crowning  member,  of  what¬ 
ever  shape,  though  it  is  most  frequently 
a  Cyma  Reversa;  (3)  the  upper  mem¬ 
ber  of  a  Cornice,  occupying  the  place  of 
a  gutter,  whatever  its  shape,  though  it 
is  generally  a  large  Cyma  Recta.  In 
Classical  Architecture,  the  Cyma  Recta 
seldom  occurs,  except  at  the  top  of 
the  Cornice  and  at  the  bottom  of  the 
Pedestal. 

It  would  seem  as  if  a  cornice  that 
occurs  at  the  top  of  a  wall  and  carries 
the  edge  of  a  roof  would  properly  have 
a  Cymatium,  this  being  the  place  fora 
gutter,  and  that  Cornices  used  as  String 
Courses,  half  way  up  a  wall,  would 

T  Gyroatiaro 

Corona 
S  Bed  Mould 


Taenia— C 


Fig. 35 

naturally  be  without  this  member.  But  the  significance  of  the  Cyma¬ 
tium  has  frequently  been  overlooked,  in  ancient  times  and  in  modern. 
Many  Greek  temples  have  a  Cymatium  on  the  sloping  lines  of  the 
gable,  where  a  gutter  would  be  useless,  Fig.  120,  and  none  along  the 
Eaves,  and  in  many  modern  buildings  the  cornices  are  crowned  by 
large  Cymatia  in  places  where  there  are  no  roofs  behind  them. 

The  Corona  is  supported  by  a  Moulding  or  group  of  Mould¬ 
ings,  called  the  Bed  Mould.  A  row  of  brackets,  termed  Blocks , 
Fig.  36,  Modillions ,  or  Mutules,  Fig.  37,  according  to  their 
shape,  resting  on  the  Bed  Mould  and  supporting  the  soffit  of 


811 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


19 


the  Corona,  is  often  added.  At  the  top  of  the  Architrave  is 
a  projecting  moulding  that,  when  square,  is  called  a  Tania , 
and  the  face  of  the  Architrave  is  often  broken  up  into  two 
or  three  Bands  or  Fascias,  Fig.  38. 


Block  ModiJlions 

Fig.  36 


The  Abacus  of  the  Capital  also  has  a  sort  of  bed  mould 
beneath  it,  which,  when  convex,  is  called  an  Echinus ,  Fig.  39, 
from  the  sea  shell,  Fig.  40,  which  it  resembles  in  shape. 


Fig. 37 

The  little  Frieze  below  it  is  called  the  Necking.  But  if  the 
bed  mould  under  the  Abacus  is  concave,  it  dies  into  the  neck¬ 
ing  like  a  large  Conge,  and  the  two  together  constitute  the 


Fig. 38 

Bell  of  the  Capital,  Fig.  41.  The  Abacus  is  square  in  plan, 
but  the  Echinus,  or  the  Bell  below  it,  is  round,  like  the  column. 

At  the  top  of  the  shaft  is  a  member  called  the  Astragal , 
consisting  of  a  Bead,  Fillet,  and  Conge.  It  has  aflat  surface 


20 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


on  top,  as  wide  as  the  projection  of  the  Congd,  Fig.  42.  At 
the  bottom  of  the  shaft  is  another  Conge,  below  which  is  a 
broad  fillet  called  the  Cincture ,  Fig.  43.  The  Base  generally 


Seasfeell 


Fig. 40 


has,  below  the  base  mouldings,  a  plain  member  called  the 
Plinth ,  which  is  square  in  plan  like  the  Abacus. 

The  Shaft  diminishes  as  it 
rises,  Fig.  44,  the  upper  diam¬ 
eter  being  only  five- sixths  of 
the  lower,  and  the  outline  is 
not  straight,  but  curved.  This 
curve,  which  is  called  the  Etitasis , 
or  bending,  as  of  a  bow,  gen¬ 
erally  begins  one-third  of  the 
way  up,  the  lower  third  being 
cylindrical.  The  Entasis  is  not 
to  be  confounded  with  the  Dim¬ 
inution ,  which  is  generally  one-sixth,  the  upper  diameter 
being  five-sixths  of  the  lower. 


Fig.  42 


Generally,  the  Pedestal  also  has  a  Corona  and  Bed  Mould, 
but  no  gutter,  above  the  Die,  and  a  Base  Moulding  and 
Plinth  below  it. 


11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


21 


9.  In  the  choice  and  use  of  mouldings,  the  tastes  and 
fashions  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  were  quite  contrary  to 
those  of  their  successors  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  Ancients 
preferred  to  use  vertical  and  horizontal  surfaces  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  and  seldom  used  an  oblique  line,  or  an 
acute  or  obtuse  angle,  as  the  Gothic  architects  did.  They 
also  preferred  the  Cyma  Reversa,  seldom  enploying  the 
Cyma  Recta,  which  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  .p 

rather  the  favorite.  Moreover,  as  has  been  J  J  | 

said,  the  Gothic  architects,  in  decorating  a  cor¬ 
ner  or  edge,  often  cut  it  away  to  get  a  moulding, 
but  the  Ancients  raised  the  moulding  above  the  8! 

plane  of  the  surface  to  which  it  was  applied. 

In  the  composition  and  sequence  of  mouldings 
also,  the  Classical  architects  generally  avoided 
repetition,  alternating  large  and  small,  plain 
and  curved,  convex  and  concave.  The  convex 
and  concave  profiles  seldom  describe  an  arc  of  ij-' 

more  than  180  degrees,  and  except  in  the  case  j| 

of  the  Beak  Moulding  and  of  the  Bead,  mouldings  g 

are  always  separated  by  Fillets.  When  a  mould-  g 

ing  is  enriched,  it  is  generally  by  carving  orna¬ 
mental  forms,  Fig.  45,  upon  it  that  resemble  its 
own  profile.  The  Greeks  frequently  employed 
elliptical  and  hyperbolic  profiles,  while  the  Romans  generally 
used  arcs  of  circles. 

Among  the  Greeks,  the  forms,  Fig.  46,  used  by  the  Doric 
race,  which  inhabited  Greece  itself  and  had  colonies  in  Sicily 
and  Italy,  were  much  unlike  those  of  the  Ionic  race,  which 
inhabited  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and  whose  art 
was  greatly  influenced  by  that  of  Assyria  and  Persia.  The 
Romans  modified  the  Ionic  and  Doric  styles,  Fig.  47,  and 
also  devised  a  third,  which  was  much  more  elaborate  than 
either  of  them,  and  employed  brackets,  called  Modillions,  in 
the  Cornice.  This  they  called  the  Corinthian,  Fig.  48.  They 
used  also  a  simpler  Doric  called  the  Tuscan ,  Fig.  49,  and  a 
cross  between  the  Corinthian  and  Ionic  called  the  Composite, 
Fig.  50.  These  are  the  Five  Orders.  The  ancient  examples 


co 


J  " 

Fig. 44 


22 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


11 


vary  much  among  themselves  •  and  differ  in  different  places, 
and  in  modern  times  still  further  varieties  are  found  in  Italy, 
Spain,  France,  Germany,  and  England. 


Fig. 45 


The  best  known  and  most  admired  forms  for  the  Orders 
are  those  worked  out  by  Giacomo  Barozzi  da  Vignola,  in 
the  16th  century,  from  the  study  of  ancient  examples.  The 
Orders  that  are  shown  in  the  large  plates  almost  exactly 
follow  Vignola’s  rules. 


11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


23 


Fig. 46 


24 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


11 


Fig. 47 


Ionic 


11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


25 


Corinthian 


Fig. 48 


Fig. 49 


26 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


Composite 
Fig.  50 


i>-\  ■ 

I 


THE  AMER 


« 


Copyright ,  1902,  by  William  R.  Ware 
Copyright .  1904,  by  International  Textbook  Company 


PL 


*  VIGNOLA 


DORIC 


IONIC 


CORINTHIAN 

COMPOSITE 


PERSPECTIVE  VIEW 


2 


8 


3/4 


3/4 


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1/2 


1/2 


9 


1/2 


7/8 


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\P  IS  ONE  NINTH  THE  HEIQHT  OF  THE  PEDESTAL 


PEDESTAL  1/3 

[vi  gnola] 


SE  IS  TWO  NINTHS  THE  HEIQHT  OF  THE  PEDESTAL 


FROM  WITHOUT 


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II 
1  1 


International  Textbook  Company, 
Scranton,  Pa. 


18538 


'  *  :  " 


§11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


27 


VIGNOLA’S  ORDERS-PLATE  II 

10.  Plate  II  shows  the  proportions  of  the  Orders  accord¬ 
ing  to  Vignola,  in  terms  of  the  lower  diameter  of  the 
columns.  These  vary  in  height  from  seven  Diameters  to  ten. 

Note. — It  is  worth  noting  that,  in  ordinary  handwriting,  the  T,  for 
Tuscan,  looks  like  a  7;  D,  for  Doric,  like  an  8;  I,  for  Ionic,  like  a  9; 
Co,  for  Corinthian  and  Composite  reminds  one  of  10. 

The  Entablature  is  in  all  of  them  ordinarily  one-fourth  the 
height  of  the  column,  but  it  is  sometimes  made  as  small  as 
one-fifth.  The  projection  of  the  Cornice  is  the  same  as  its 
height,  except  in  the  Doric  Order,  where  it  is  greater.  The 
lower  band  of  the  Architrave  is  made  to  come  in  line  with 
the  upper  face  of  the  shaft. 

But  it  is  only  when  seen  in  elevation  that  these  relations 
obtain.  When  seen  in  perspective,  as  is  generally  the  case, 
the  cornice  appears  much  larger,  in  proportion,  and  the 
frieze  and  architrave,  being  foreshortened,  much  smaller,  and 
the  architrave  overhangs  the  shaft,  Figs.  53  and  57. 

In  the  Greek  Orders,  the  Column  is  from  five  to  ten  Diame¬ 
ters  in  height  and  the  Entablature  always  about  two  Diam¬ 
eters.  In  the  Greek  Orders,  accordingly,  the  taller  the 
Column,  the  lighter  the  Entablature,  relatively;  but  in  the 
Roman  Orders,  the  taller  the  Column,  the  heavier  the  Entab¬ 
lature,  actually.  It  follows  that  the  weight  of  the  Greek 
Entablature  is  proportioned  to  the  diameter  of  the  Column, 
irrespective  of  its  height;  of  the  Roman  to  the  height  of  the 
Column,  regardless  of  its  diameter.  The  Romans  put 
the  least  weight  on  the  shortest  and  strongest  supports.  The 
Greek  plan  shows  more  regard  to  principles  of  construction, 
the  Roman  to  principles  of  decorative  composition. 

Vignola  used  half  of  the  lower  diameter  of  the  Column  as 
his  unit  of  measure,  or  Module.  This  he  divided  into  twelve 
Parts  for  the  Tuscan  and  Doric  Orders,  and  into  eighteen 
Minutes  for  the  others,  and  he  gives  all  the  dimensions  both 
of  the  larger  members  and  of  the  mouldings  in  terms  of 
Modules  and  Parts,  or  Minutes,  sometimes  using  even  the 
quarter  Minute,  or  one  one-hundred-and-forty-fourth  of  a 


28 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


11 


Diameter.  But  it  is  equally  practicable  and  more  convenient 
to  use  the  whole  Diameter  as  a  unit  of  measure,  dividing  it 
only  into  Fourths  and  Sixths,  and  occasionally  using  an 
Eighth  or  a  Twelfth. 

In  Plates  IV,  VI,  VII,  IX,  XI,  and  XIII,  the  first  column 
on  the  left  shows  the  vertical  dimensions  as  given  in  Plate  II. 

i  In  the  second  column,  these 
divisions  are  subdivided  into 
equal  parts,  the  third  column 
giving  a  further  division  of 
the  dimensions  thus  obtained. 
Most  of  these  dimensions  can 
be  stated  in  terms  of  sixths 
or  fourths  of  the  Diameter,  as 
appears  in  the  Tables.  This 
analysis  does  not  reach  the 
smaller  details,  the  shape  and 
size  of  which  must  be  learned 
by  observation.  Indeed,  all 
these  forms  should  be  made 
so  familiar  that  they  can 
be  drawn  accurately  from 
memory,  these  arithmetical 
relations  being  used  only  to 
test  the  accuracy  of  the  result, 
or  to  discover  how  much  the 
proportions  adopted  in  any 
given  case  differ  from  the 
regular  type.  For  Vignola’s 
Orders  are  to  be  regarded 
only  as  an  admirable  standard  that  may  be  safely  adopted 
when  there  is  no  occasion  to  do  anything  else,  but  which  is  to 
be  departed  from  and  varied  whenever  there  is  any  reason 
for  doing  so.  Vignola  obviously  so  regarded  them.  He 
did  not  himself  adhere  closely  to  his  own  rules,  or  generally 
adopt  his  Orders  in  his  own  work.  His  Doric  and  Ionic  are 
to  be  found,  however,  in  the  Villa  Caprarola. 


Temple  of  Piety 

Fig.  51 


PLAN  of  BASE 


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29 


THE  TUSCAN  ORDER-PLATES  III  AND  IV 

11.  The  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  Tuscan 
Order  is  simplicity.  Any  forms  of  Pedestal,  Column,  and 
Entablature  that  show  but  few  mouldings,  and  those  plain, 
are  considered  to  be  Tuscan.  Such  are,  in  antiquity,  those 
of  the  Temple  of  Piety 
in  Rome,  Fig.  51,  and 
the  lower  order  of  the 
Amphitheater  at  Arles. 

Vignola’s  Tuscan  Or¬ 
der,  Fig.  52,  is  marked 
by  the  use  of  the  Ovolo 
in  the  Cymatium,  and 
by  the  frequent  em¬ 
ployment  of  the  Conge. 

The  height  of  the  Col¬ 
umn  is  seven  Diam¬ 
eters  and  that  of  the 
Entablature  accord¬ 
ingly  seven-quarters,  or 
a  Diameter  and  three- 
quarters.  The  Base, 

Capital,  Architrave,  and 
Frieze  are  each  half  a 
Diameter  high,  and  the 
Cornice  three-quarters. 

But  this  measurement 
includes  not  only  the 
Base  itself ,  but  the  Cinc¬ 
ture  at  the  foot  of  the 
shaft.  Dividing  the 

Cornice  into  four  parts,  the  Capital  into  three,  and  the  Base 
into  two,  gives  the  principal  horizontal  divisions.  The  Bed 
Mould  is  a  large  Cyma  Reversa.  The  Abacus  is  seven-sixths 
of  a  Diameter  across,  not  including  the  Fillet  at  the  top, 
and  it  projects  its  own  height  from  the  face  of  the  Architrave 
above,  which  is  in  line  with  the  Necking  below. 


Fig. 52 


30 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


11 


All  the  principal  dimensions  can  be  expressed  in  terms  of 
fourths  and  sixths  of  the  lower  Diameter  of  the  Shaft. 

Vignola  makes  the  width  of  the  Plinth  a  little  greater  than 
this,  and  sets  the  Bed  Mould  up  one-twelfth,  making  the 
Frieze  wider  and  the  Corona  narrower. 


TABLE  OF  THE  TUSCAN  ORDER— PLATES  V,  VI,  AND  VII 

i  D  equals  height  of  Plinth. 


„  ,  [height  of  Cornice. 

D  equals! 

[projection  of  Cornice. 


e  D  equals 


height  of  Necking, 
height  of  Echinus, 
height  of  Abacus. 


\  D  = 


D  equals- 


height  of  Base,  including  Cincture, 
height  of  Capital, 
height  of  Architrave, 
height  of  Frieze. 


t  D  equals  upper  Diameter  of  Shaft, 
t  D  equals  lower  Diameter  of  Shaft, 
i  D  equals  width  of  Abacus, 
i  D  equals  width  of  Plinth. 
tV  D  equals  width  of  Taenia. 


iV  D  equals 


height  of  Astragal, 
projection  of  Astragal. 


THE  DORIC  ORDER-PLATES  VII,  VIII,  IX,  AND  X. 

12.  The  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  Doric 
Order,  Figs.  53  and  54,  are  features  in  the  Frieze  and  in 
the  Bed  Mould  above  it,  called  Triglyphs  and  Mutules,  which 
are  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  ends  of  beams  and 
rafters  in  a  primitive  wooden  construction  with  large  beams. 
Under  each  Triglyph,  and  beneath  the  Taenia  that  crowns 
the  Architrave,  is  a  little  Fillet  called  the  Regula.  Under  the 


ELEVATION  of  ENTABLATURE 


THE  AMERIC/ 


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Copyright ,  1904,  by  International  Textbook  Company 


PLAT! 


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Fig.  54 


32  THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA  §11 

Regula  are  six  long  drops,  called  Gutt<z,  which  are  some¬ 
times  conical,  sometimes  pyramidal.  There  are  also  either 
eighteen  or  thirty-six  short  cylindrical  Guttae  under  the  soffit 
of  each  Mutule.  The  Guttae  are  supposed  to  represent  the 
heads  of  wooden  pins,  or  treenails. 


Fig.  55  Pig.  5S 

Two  different  Doric  Orders  are  in  use,  the  Mutulary , 
Figs.  53,  54,  and  55,  and  the  Denticulated ,  Figs.  56,  57,  and  58. 
I'hey  differ  chiefly  in  the  cornices.  In  both  of  them  the 
height,  of  three-quarters  of  a  Diameter,  is  divided  into  four 
equal  parts,  the  upper  one  embracing  the  gutter,  or  Cyma- 
tium,  and  the  Fillet  below,  the  next  the  Corona  and  the  small 
Cyma  Reversa,  or  Cymatium,  above  it.  But  the  Bed  Moulds 


THE  AMERICA] 


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33 


are  unlike.  In  both  of  them,  the  lower  member  of  the  Bed 
Mould  is  a  broad  fillet,  a  sort  of  Upper  Taenia,  called  the  Cap  of 
the  Triglyph.  This,  unlike  the  Taenia  below,  breaks  around 
the  angles  of  the  Triglyph,  serving  as  a  sort  of  crowning 
member,  or  cymatium,  to  both  the  Triglyph  and  the  Metope. 

13.  In  the  Mutulary  Doric,  above  the  Cap  of  the  Tri¬ 
glyph,  is  a  narrow  fillet  that  does  not  break  around  the  angles 
and  accordingly  shows  a  broad  soffit  over  the  Metopes  and 
at  the  corner  of  the  building.  These  two  fillets  occupy  the 
lower  half  of  the  lower  quarter  of  the  cornice.  The  upper 
half  of  the  lower  quarter,  above  this  little  fillet,  is  an  Ovolo, 
and  above  this,  the  second  quarter  of  the  Cornice  is  occupied 
by  a  broad  Fascia,  called  the  Mutule  Band ,  upon  which  are 
planted  the  Mutules,  one  over  each  Triglyph,  which  are  half 
a  Diameter  wide,  like  the  Triglyphs  below  them.  They  are 
broad,  low,  oblong  brackets,  crowned  with  a  Fillet  and  Cyma 
Reversa,  which  also  crown  the  Mutule  Band  between  the 
brackets.  On  the  soffit  of  each  Mutule  are  thirty-six  Guttse 
and  a  drip  moulding. 

14.  In  the  Denticulated  Doric,  Figs.  56,  57,  and  58, 
the  place  of  the  Fillet  and  Ovolo  above  the  Cap  of  the 


Triglyph  is  taken  by  a  large  Cyma  Reversa,  the  soffit  ol 
which  is  wider  over  the  Metopes  than  over  the  Triglyphs,  as 


34 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


Fig.  58 


11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


35 


is  that  of  the  small  Fillet  in  the  Mutulary.  Above  this 
moulding  is  a  band  like  the  Mutule  Band,  but  instead  of 
brackets,  extending  out  under  the  Corona,  it  bears  a  row  of 
small  blocks,  like  teeth,  called  Dentils.  These  are  one- 
eighth  of  a  Diameter  high,  and  are  set  one-eighth  of  a 
Diameter  from  center  to  center,  or  edge  to  edge.  If  this 
last  dimension  is  divided  into  thirds,  two  of  these  go  to  the 
Dentil,  and  one  to  the  space  between  it  and  the  next  one. 
This  space  is  called  an  Interdentil ,  which  is  accordingly  one 
twenty-fourth  of  a  Diameter  wide.  The  Dentil  is  thus 
one-eighth  of  a  Diameter  long  and  one-twelfth  wide,  or  half 
a  sixth,  or  of  the  proportions  of  two  to  three,  like  the  Tri¬ 
glyph.  The  face  of  the  last  Dentil  on  the  corner  and  the 
side  of  the  first  one  around  the  corner  come  together  in 
elevation  without  any  Interdentil,  giving  the  appearance  of 
a  Double  Dentil ,  for  the  Dentils  are  square  in  plan  and  the 
side  is  just  as  wide  as  the  face. 

As  the  Triglyphs  are  a  Diameter  and  a  quarter  on  centers, 
or  ten-eighths,  there  are  ten  Dentils  to  each  Triglyph  and 
Metope. 

A  Dentil  comes  just  over  the  axis  of  each  Column  and 
there  are  three  Dentils  between  the  one  over  the  corner 
Column  and  the  Double  Dentil  on  the  corner,  the  farther 
edge  of  the  third  one  being  just  over  the  face  of  the  Frieze, 
or  five-twelfths  of  a  Diameter  from  the  axis  of  the  Column. 

The  last  Dentil,  or  first  half  of  the  Double  Dentil,  is  cen¬ 
tered  over  the  outer  face  of  the  bottom  of  the  shaft,  Fig.  92. 

The  Dentils  constitute  the  upper  member  of  the  Bed  Mould. 
They  leave  the  chief  part  of  the  Corona  unsupported,  but 
the  soffit  of  the  Corona,  which  is  slightly  inclined,  recalling 
the  slope  of  the  rafters,  is  not  so  wide  as  the  soffit  of  the 
Mutulary  Doric,  owing  to  this  encroachment  of  the  Dentils. 
The  Mutules,  which  are  very  shallow,  have,  accordingly, 
only  eighteen  Guttse  in  place  of  thirty-six;  that  is,  three 
rows,  instead  of  six.  There  is  also  a  Mutule  over  each 
Metope,  as  well  as  one  over  each  Triglyph. 

Vignola  gives  his  Denticulated  Doric  a  large  Cavetto  for 
a  Cymatium,  or  gutter,  instead  of  a  Cyma  Recta,  and  supports 


36 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA  §11 


the  Echinus  of  the  Capital  by  three  fillets,  instead  of  by  a 
Fillet  and  Bead,  Fig.  58. 

The  Triglyphs  are  three-quarters  of  a  Diameter  high  and 
half  a  Diameter  wide,  Fig.  59.  This  width  is  divided  into 
three  parts,  called  S hanks .  Each  Shank,  or  Fcmw ,  is  bev¬ 
eled  on  the  edge  nearly  up  to  the  top  of  the  Triglyph, 
making  in  all  two  channels  and  two  half  channels.  Each 
Shank  is  one-sixth  of  a  Diameter  wide  and  each  beveled  face 
a  quarter  of  a  sixth.  The  plain  face  of  the  Shank  is,  accord¬ 
ingly,  one-twelfth,  and  just 


r 


7/A 

I 

I 

I 

ff 

I 

§ 

I 

ft 


as  wide  as  the  channel. 
These  are  almost  the  only 
beveled  faces  to  be  found 
in  the  whole  range  of  Clas¬ 
sical  Architecture,  though 
beveled  fillets  are  not  un¬ 
common.  The  two  full 
channels  are  generally  cut 
in  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees, 
but  the  two  half  channels 
on  either  side  are  shal¬ 
lower,  and  do  not  reach 
the  face  of  the  Frieze. 

The  Triglyphs  come  just 
over  the  Columns.  The 
portion  of  the  Frieze  be¬ 
tween  the  Triglyphs  is 
called  a  Metope.  It  is  ex¬ 
actly  square,  being  three-quarters  of  a  Diameter  wide.  I  he 
fragment  of  a  Metope  between  the  last  Triglyph  and  the  cor¬ 
ner  of  the  Frieze  is  one-sixth  of  a  Diameter  wide.  The  face 
of  the  Metopes  comes  over  the  lower  band  of  the  Architrave, 
and  that  of  the  Triglyph  projects  slightly  beyond  the  face 
of  the  upper  Band. 

The  Column  is  eight  Diameters  in  height,  the  Base,  Capi¬ 
tal,  and  Architrave  each  half  a  Diameter,  the  Frieze  and 
Cornice  each  three-quarters.  The  total  projection  of  the 
Cornice,  including  the  Cymatium,  is  one  Diameter.  The 


Taenia 

Regula 

Quttae 


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THE  AMERICA 


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Copyright ,  1904,  by  International  Textbook  Compan 


PLATE 


VIGNOLA 


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THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


37 


Architrave  is  divided  into  two  Bands,  or  Fascias.  The  lower 
one  occupies  the  lower  third  of  the  Architrave,  and  the 
Taenia,  Regula,  and  Guttae  the  upper  third.  Half  of  this  third 
goes  to  the  Taenia,  the  projection  of  which  equals  its  height. 

The  Doric  Column  has  twenty  Channels ,  each  about  one- 
sixth  of  a  Diameter  wide,  which 
show  in  section,  Fig.  60,  an 
arc  of  60  degrees.  The  solid 
edge  that  separates  them,  called 
the  Arris ,  makes  an  angle  of 
something  over  90  degrees 
(102  degrees).  The  ten  Arrises 
shown  in  elevation  are  easy  to 
draw,  as  two  come  on  the  outline 
of  the  Shaft,  two  come  on  its 
“corners,”  and  the  two  middle 
ones  are  almost  exactly  one- 
sixth  of  a  Diameter  apart.  The  channels  are  .157  of  a 
Diameter  wide,  so  that  making  the  middle  one  one-sixth,  or 
.166  of  a  Diameter,  involves  an  error  of  only  .009  of  a 

Diameter,  or  about  one- 
eighteenth  of  its  width. 
The  four  other  Arrises  can 
then  be  put  in  without 
much  dfficulty. 


15.  The  Doric  Base 
and  Capital,  Figs.  54  and 
58,  are  divided,  like  the 
Tuscan,  into  halves  and 
thirds,  but  with  additional 
mouldings,  a  bead  being 
added  above  the  Torus 
of  the  Base,  and  another 
below  the  Echinus  of  the  Capital.  The  Abacus  is  crowned  by 
a  cymatium  consisting  of  a  Fillet  and  Cyma  Reversa.  If  the 
height  of  the  Capital  is  divided  into  thirds,  the  two  upper 
thirds  again  into  thirds,  and  the  upper  and  lower  of  these 


X" 


Fig. 61 


38 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


still  again  into  three  equal  parts,  all  the  horizontal  lines  of 
the  Capital  will  be  determined,  as  shown  in  Plate  V. 

Vignola’s  Denticulated  Doric  is  imitated  closely  from  the 
Doric  Order  of  the  Theater  of  Marcellus,  and  the  Mutulary, 
which  he  has  been  thought  to  have  invented,  seems  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  Doric  Order  of  the  Basilica  Julia, 
Fig.  61.  There  are  no  Roman  Doric  temples. 


TABLE  OF  TIIE  DORIC  ORDER-PLATES  VII,  VIII,  IX,  AND  X 

height  of  Frieze, 
height  of  Cornice. 

D  equals-;  projection  of  Corona  (Denticulated), 
projection  of  Mutule  (Mutulary). 

\vidth  of  Metope. 

i  D  equals  height  of  Plinth. 

projection  of  Plinth, 
projection  of  Abacus, 
height  of  Abacus, 
height  of  Necking. 

D  equals-)  height  of  Echinus  and  Bead, 
height  of  Lower  Band, 
height  of  Guttae,  Regula,  and  Taenia, 
width  of  Shank, 
width  of  Corner  Metope. 


D  =  f  D  equals 


1 

'1  2 


1  6 


1 

2  4 


height  of  Base,  including  the  Cincture, 
height  of  Capital, 
height  of  Architrave, 
width  of  Triglyph. 

D  equals  height  of  Dentils. 

width  of  Dentils. 

D  equals-  height  of  Taenia. 

[projection  of  Taenia. 

D  eqUals(height  of  Af W'’  , 

I  projection  of  Astragal. 

D  equals  width  of  Interdentils. 


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THE  AMERICA 


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Abacus., 

Echinus 

Necking 

Astragal 


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I 


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THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


39 


TIIE  IONIC  ORDER-PLATES  VIII  AND  IX 


□ 


TJU 


Ionic  Capitals  and  Bases  CLycia) 

Fig.  62 


Persian  Gornice 
Tomb  of  Darias 

Ly  A 


Assyrian  Capital 
Relief  at  Kborsabad 


f 


Ionic 

Pig.  63 


16.  The  prototypes  of  the  Ionic,  Order  are  to  be  found 
in  Persia,  Assyria,  Fig.  62,  and  Asia  Minor.  Like  the  Doric 
Order,  it  seems  to  have  originated  in  a  wooden  construction. 
It  is  characterized  by  Bands  in  the 
Architrave  and  Dentils  in  the  Bed  Mould, 
both  of  which  are  held  to  represent 
sticks  laid  together  to  form  a  beam  or 
a  roof.  But  the  most  conspicuous  and 
distinctive  feature  is  the  Scrolls  that 
decorate  the  Capital  of  the  Column. 

These  have  no  structural  significance, 
and  are  purely  decorative  forms  derived 
from  Assyria  and  Egypt.  Originally 
the  Ionic  Order  had  no  Frieze  and  no 
Echinus  in  the  Capital.  These  were 
borrowed  from  the  Doric  Order,  and,  in 
like  manner,  the  Dentils  and  Bands  in 
the  Doric  were  imitated  from  the  Ionic. 

The  Ionic  Frieze  was  introduced  in  order 


to  afford  a  place  for  sculpture,  and  was  called  by  the  Greeks 
the  Zodphorus,  or  Figure  Bearer,  Fig.  64. 

In  the  Ionic  Entablature,  the  Architrave,  Frieze,  and 
Cornice  are  of  about  the  same  height,  each  measuring 


Fig.  64 


THE  AMERICA 


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§11 

about  three-quarters  of  a  Diameter.  But  Vignola  makes  the 
Architrave  a  little  smaller  and  the  Cornice  a  little  larger,  so 
that  they  measure,  respectively,  five-eighths,  six-eighths,  and 
seven-eighths  of  a  Diameter.  The  Architrave  is  divided 
into  five  parts,  each  an  eighth  of  a  Diameter  in  height.  The 
upper  one  is  occupied  by  a  large  Cyma  Reversa  and  Fillet, 
which  take  the  place  of  the  Doric  Taenia.  Below  are  two 
fascias,  or  bands,  of  equal  height,  each  measuring  a  quarter 
of  a  Diameter.  The  lower  one  is  crowned  by  an  Ovolo  and 
Fillet.  The  French  often  use  three  bands,  as  in  the  Corin¬ 
thian  Architrave. 

The  Ionic  Frieze  is  plain,  except  for  the  sculpture  upon  it. 
It  sometimes  has  a  curved  outline,  as  if  ready  to  be  carved, 
a'nd  is  then  said  to  be  Pulvinated ,  from  Pulvinar,  a  bolster, 
which  it  much  resembles. 

The  Cornice  is  much  like  that  of  the  Denticulated  Doric, 
which  was  derived  from  it,  but  has  no  Mutules.  The  upper 
half,  as  in  the  Doric,  is  taken  up  by  the  Cymatium  and 
Corona,  and  the  lower  half  by  the  Bed  Mould.  This  is 
divided  into  four  equal  parts,  of  which  the  upper  one  is 
given  to  an  Ovolo,  the  lower  to  a  Cyma  Reversa  and  Fillet, 
and  the  two  middle  ones  to  a  Dentil  Band  and  Fillet.  Upon 
this  band  are  planted  the  Dentils,  which  are  one-sixth  of  a 
Diameter  high,  and  are  set  one-sixth  on  centers,  or  on  edges, 
instead  of  one-eighth,  as  in  the  Denticulated  Doric.  Two- 
thirds  of  this  sixth  go  to  the  width  of  the  Dentil  and  one  to 
the  space  between,  or  Interdentil.  The  Dentil  is,  accord¬ 
ingly,  one-ninth  of  a  Diameter  wide,  and  the  Interdentil 
one-eighteenth,  instead  of  a  twelfth  and  a  twenty-fourth.  A 
Dentil  is  put  on  the  axis  of  a  column,  and  an  Interdentil 
comes  just  over  the  outer  line  of  the  Frieze.  There  is, 
apparently,  a  Double  Dentil  on  the  corner,  the  outer  face 
of  which  is  two-thirds  of  a  Diameter,  or  four-sixths,  from 
the  axis  of  the  column.  The  first  half  of  it,  as  in  the 
Denticulated  Doric,  comes  over  the  outer  face  of  the  lower 
end  of  the  shaft,  Fig.  93.  There  are  two  Dentils  between 
the  one  over  the  column  and  the  Double  Dentil,  in  place  of 
three,  as  in  the  Doric. 


42 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


The  Ionic  Capital,  like  the  Doric,  has  an  Echinus  and 
an  Abacus  crowned  by  a  Cyma  Reversa  and  Fillet.  But 
generally  it  has  no  Necking,  and  it  is,  accordingly,  only  two- 
sixths  of  a  Diameter  in  height,  or  one-third  instead  of  one- 
half.  Both  the  Echinus  and  the  Cymatium  that  crown  the 


Abacus  are  larger  than  in  the  Doric,  and  the  face  of  the  Abacus 
smaller,  and  the  Echinus  projects  in  front  of  the  Abacus, 
instead  of  being  covered  by  it.  The  Abacus  and  its  Fillet 
extend  beyond  the  Echinus  on  either  side,  and  are  curled  up 
into  the  Scrolls,  or  Volutes ,  Fig.  65,  the  whole  height  of 


which  is  a  half  Diameter,  measuring  down  from  the  Archi¬ 
trave.  The  Eyes  of  the  Scrolls  are  one-third  of  a  Diameter 
from  the  top,  on  the  line  separating  the  bottom  of  the  Capital 
from  the  top  of  the  Astragal  that  crowns  the  Shaft.  They 
are  just  one  Diameter  apart  on  centers,  coming  over  the 


§11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


43 


outer  lines  of  the  lower  end  of  the  Shaft,  and  the  inner 
edges  of  the  Scrolls  are  two-thirds  apart.  The  Echinus  is 
generally  carved  with  Eggs  and  Darts,  three  of  which  show 
between  the  Scrolls,  the  next  one  on  either  side  being  hidden 
by  sprigs  of  Honeysuckle  Ornament.  These  Scrolls,  Fig.  66, 
show  on  the  sides  a  series  of  mouldings  called  the  Baluster ,  or 
Bolster.  The  term  Abacus  is  generally  held  to  apply  only  to 
the  Cyma  Reversa  and  Fillet,  above  the  Scrolls. 


The  Shaft  of  the  column  is  ornamented  with  twenty-four 
Flutings,  Fig.  67,  semicircular  in  section,  which  are  sep¬ 
arated  not  by  an  Arris,  but  by  a  Fillet  of  about  one-fourth 
their  width.  This  makes  the  Flutings  only  about  two- 
thirds  as  wide  as  the  Doric  Channels,  or  about  one-ninth 
of  a  Diameter,  instead  of  one-sixth.  Four-fifths  of  one- 
twenty-fourth  of  the  circumference  is  .106  of  a  Diameter, 
while  one-ninth  of  the  diameter  is  .111,  a  difference  of  less 
than  a  twentieth. 


44 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


11 


The  typical  Ionic  base  is  considered  to  consist  mainly  of  a 
Scotia,  as  in  some  Greek  examples,  Fig.  69.  It  is  common, 


Fig. 68 


Base  of  Choragic  Column  (Athens) 
Fig. 69 


/DUG'V-/v 


X 


AllicBs.se 
Fig. 70 


however,  to  use  instead  what  is  called  the  Attic  Base ,  Fig.  70, 
consisting  of  a  Scotia  and  two  Fillets  between  two  large 


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Toruses,  mounted  on  a  plinth,  the  whole  half  a  Diameter 
high.  The  Plinth  occupies  the  lower  third,  or  one-sixth 
of  a  Diameter.  Vignola  adopted  for  his  Ionic  Order  a 


Fig. 71 


Fig. 73 

modification  of  the  Attic  Base,  substituting  for  the  single 
large  Scotia  two  small  ones,  separated  by  one  or  two  Beads 
and  Fillets  and  omitting  the  lower  Torus,  Fig.  64. 


46 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


The  principal  ancient  examples  of  the  Ionic  Order  in 
Rome  are  those  of  the  Theater  of  Marcellus,  Fig.  71,  and 
of  the  Temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis,  Fig.  72. 

The  Ionic  Capital  sometimes  has  a  necking  like  the  Doric, 
which  is  then  generally  decorated,  Fig.  73.  Sometimes, 
also,  the  four  faces  of  the  Capital  are  made  alike,  double 
scrolls  occurring  at  the  corners,  where  they  project  at  an 


Scam ozsi  Capital 
Fig. 74 


angle  of  45  degrees.  In  this  case  there  is  no  Baluster,  and 
the  Capital  resembles  the  upper  portion  of  a  Composite 
Capital.  It  is  then  sometimes  called  the  Roman  Ionic 
Capital,  or  the  Scamozzi  Capital,  Fig.  74,  from  the  name  of 
the  architect  Scamozzi,  who  frequently  employed  it. 

Almost  all  the  dimensions  of  the  Ionic  Order  can  be 
expressed  in  terms  of  sixths  of  a  Diameter,  as  appears  in 
the  following  Table: 


TABLE  OF  T1IE  IONIC  ORDER-PLATES  XI,  XII,  AND  XIII 

f  D  equals  height  of  Architrave. 

i  D  =  f-  D  equals  height  of  Frieze. 

7  „  ,  [height  of  Cornice, 

s  D  equals 

[projection  of  Cornice. 

i  D  =  %  D  equals  height  of  each  Band. 

projection  of  Plinth, 
height  of  Plinth, 
height  of  Dentils, 
distance  of  Dentils,  o.  c. 
projection  of  Abacus. 


o  D  equals 


11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


47 


\D  =  I 

=  f 

i  D  =  i 


5. 

6 


1/7  =  1 

7 

(3 

11  D  =  f 

11  D  =  t 

1_ 

9 


D  equals  height  of  Capital. 


.  [height  of  Base, 
equa  s  [ height  of  Scrolls. 


D  equals^ 


distance  between  Scrolls, 
distance  from  Axis  to  outer  face 
of  Double  Dentil. 


D  equals  upper  Diameter. 


D  equals 


lower  Diameter. 

•  distance  of  Eyes  of  Scrolls,  o.  c. 
length  of  Baluster. 


D  equals  width  of  Abacus. 

|  width  of  Plinth. 

equa  Echinus  (minus). 

D  equals  width  of  Scrolls  (minus). 

[width  of  Dentil, 
equa  sjwi^th  Fluting. 


.  f  height  of  Astragal. 

12  eQua  s  [projection  of  Astragal. 

Ts  Z7  equals  width  of  Interdentil. 


THE  CORINTHIAN  ORDER— PEATES  X  AND  XI 

17.  The  three  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the 
Corinthian  Order,  Fig.  / 5,  are  a  tall  bell-shaped  Capital, 
a  series  of  small  brackets,  called  Modillions,  that  support 
the  Cornice  instead  of  Mutules,  in  addition  to  the  Dentils, 
and  a  general  richness  of  detail,  which  is  enhanced  by  the 
use  of  the  Acanthus  leaf ,  Fig.  76,  in  both  Capitals  and 
Modillions. 

The  height  of  the  Cornice,  Fig.  77,  is  divided  into  five 
parts.  The  two  lower  and  the  two  upper  parts  resemble 
the  lower  and  upper  halves  of  the  Ionic  Cornice.  The 
middle  fifth  is  occupied  by  a  Modillion  Band ,  which  carries 
the  Modillions,  or  brackets.  These,  as  well  as  the  Modillion 


48 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


Band,  are  crowned  by  a  small  Cyma  Reversa.  They  con¬ 
sist  of  a  double  scroll,  below  which  is  an  Acanthus  leaf. 
Each  Modillion  is  half  a  Diameter  long,  one-fifth  high,  and 
l  as  wide  as  a  Dentil  and  two  Inter¬ 

dentils;  that  is  to  say,  two-ninths  of 
a  Diameter.  They  are  set  two-thirds 
of  a  Diameter  on  centers,  one  being 
over  the  axis  of  the  corner  Column,  and 
one  over  the  outer  face  of  the  Double 
Dentil.  The  soffit  of  the  Corona 
between  the  Modillions  is  occupied 
by  a  sinkage  with  mouldings,  called  a 
Caisson ,  in  the  middle  of  which  there 
is  a  large  Rosette. 

As  the  Modillions  are  two-thirds  of  a 
Diameter  on  centers,  or  four-sixths,  and 
the  Dentils  are  one-sixth,  on  centers,  it 
follows  that  there  are  four  Dentils  to 
each  Modillion;  i.  e.,  a  Dentil  under 
every  Modillion,  and  three  between. 
As  in  the  Ionic  Order  and  in  the  Den¬ 
ticulated  Doric,  the  last  Dentil,  which 
is  the  first  half  of  the  Double  Dentil,  is 
centered  over  the  face  of  the  lower 
Diameter  of  the  column,  Fig.  94. 


Gorinthian 

Pig.  75 


Fig.  76 


The  Architrave,  which  is  three-quarters  of  a  Diameter 
high,  has  three  Bands  and  a  large  cymatium,  which  is  as 
wide  as  the  first  Band.  The  two  lower  Bands  occupy  the 


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lower  half  of  the  Architrave,  and  the  third  Band  and  the 
cymatium  the  upper.  A  small  Bead,  or  a  small  Cyma 
Reversa,  generally  crowns  each  Band.  The  Frieze,  which 
is  also  three-quarters  of  a  Diameter  high,  may  be  plain, 
pulvinated,  or  sculptured. 


The  Capital,  Fig.  78,  is  seven-sixths  of  a  Diameter  high, 
the  upper  sixth  being  taken  up  by  the  Abacus,  which  is  nine- 
sixths,  or  a  Diameter  and  a  half,  in  width,  though  it  does 
not  look  so.  It  is  moulded  on  the  edge  with  an  Ovolo  and 
Fillet  above  a  large  Conge  and  small  Fascia.  The  corners 
are  cut  off  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  and  the  sides  hollowed 


50 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


out  in  a  curve  of  60  degrees.  The  width  across  from  curve 
to  curve  is  seven-sixths  of  a  Diameter.  Each  face  of  the 
Abacus  bears  a  flower,  called  the  Fleuron ,  that  springs  from 
a  small  bud  above  the  middle  leaf. 


Fig.  78 


The  Bell  of  the  capital,  Fig.  79,  is  one  Diameter  high,  or 
six-sixths;  it  terminates  under  the  Abacus  in  a  Beak  Mould¬ 
ing  called  the  Lip  of  the  Bell ,  which  measures  seven-sixths 
of  a  Diameter  across,  its  greatest  projection  coming  just 
under  the  least  projection  of  the  upper  line  of  the  Abacus. 
The  lower  two-sixths  are  covered  by  a  row  of  eight  Acanthus 


THE  AMERICA 


CAPITAL 

ARCHITRAVE 

FFLIEZE 

COEN’  ICE 

« 

7/6  DIAMETER. 

- i - 1 - 2 - 1 - 1_ e_ j 

_ 

3/4  d 

r  1 

3/4  D 

1 

.  .  T  , 

o 

Hi 

- 1_ 1  I_ 1_ 1_ 1. 

_ 

i  i 

zzd 

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leaves,  which  bend  down  at  the  top  to  the  extent  of  half 
a  sixth,  or  a  quarter  of  their  own  height.  The  next  two- 
sixths  show  a  similar  row  of  eight  leaves,  set  alternately 
with  those  below,  four  facing  the  sides  of  the  Capital,  and 
four  the  corners.  Like  those  of  the  first  row,  they  spring 
from  the  Astragal  at  the  top  of  the  Shaft,  and  the  mid-rib  of 
each  leaf  shows  between  two  lower  leaves,  it  being  really 
four-sixths  high.  These  also  bend  down  half  a  sixth. 
Between  the  eight  leaves  of  the  second  row  are  eight  Cauli- 
coli ,  or  cabbage  stalks,  which  terminate  in  a  Button ,  upon 
which  rests  a  sort  of  Bud,  which  divides  into  two  leaves. 
These  turn  right  and  left,  the  larger  one  toward  the  corner 
of  the  Capital,  the  smaller  toward  the  side  or  front  under  the 


Palladio’s  Corinthian  Base 


Fig.  80 


Fig.  79 


Fleuron.  From  each  Bud  rise  also  two  scrolls,  or  Volutes, 
one  of  which  runs  out  to  support  the  projecting  corner  of 
the  Abacus.  The  other,  which  is  smaller  and  does  not  rise 
higher  than  the  Lip  of  the  Bell,  supports  the  Fleuron.  Six¬ 
teen  leaves  of  a  third  row  curl  over  under  these  sixteen 
volutes,  making  with  them  eight  masses  of  ornament,  one 
on  each  corner  of  the  column,  and  one  in  the  middle  of  each 
side.  These  give  in  plan  an  eight-pointed  star,  each  point 
consisting  of  a  large  leaf,  two  small  leaves,  two  Volutes,  and 
above  them,  either  the  Fleuron  or  the  horn  of  the  Abacus. 
Between  them  is  seen  the  Bell  of  the  Cap,  with  its  Lip. 

Here,  again,  the  Attic  Base  is  commonly  used,  but  some¬ 
times,  especially  in  large  columns,  a  base  is  used  that 
resembles  Vignola’s  Ionic  Base,  with  two  Beads  between  the 


52 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


Scotias,  except  that  it  has  a  lower  Torus,  Fig.  78.  Palladio 
used  a  very  elegant  variety  of  Attic  Base,  enriched  by  the 
addition  of  Beads  and  Fillets,  Fig.  80.  The  Shaft  is  fluted 
like  the  Ionic  shaft,  with  twenty-four  semicircular  flutings, 
but  these  are  sometimes  filled  with  a  convex  moulding,  or 
Cable ,  to  a  third  of  their  height,  Fig.  75. 

Almost  all  the  buildings  erected  by  the  Romans  employ 
the  Corinthian  Order. 


TABLE  OF  THE  CORINTHIAN  ORDER- PLATES  XIV, 
XV,  AND  XVI 


3_ 

4 


D  equals 


[height  of  Architrave, 
[height  of  Frieze. 


lZ>  =  }Z>eqUals!heightof  Co™ice-. 

I  projection  of  Cornice. 


i 

6 


D  equals' 


projection  of  Plinth, 
height  of  Plinth, 
height  of  Lower  Band, 
height  of  Dentils, 
distance  of  Dentils,  o.  c. 


3  D  =  i  D  equals 


height  of  Leaves, 
projection  of  Abacus. 


2  D  =  %  D  equals  length  of  Modillions. 


2. 

3 


D  =  i  D  equals- 


distance  of  Modillions,  o.  c. 
distance  from  Axis  to  face  of  Double 
Dentil. 


I  D  equals  upper  Diameter. 


1  D  =  %  D  equals 


lower  Diameter, 
height  of  Bell, 
height  of  Cornice, 
projection  of  Cornice. 


\  D  equals 


height  of  Capital, 
width  of  Abacus  (least), 
width  of  Lip  of  the  Bell. 


11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


53 


1  \  D  —  -f  D  equals  width  of  Plinth. 

1  \  D  =  f-  D  equals  width  of  Abacus  (greatest). 

2  D  =  -^  D  equals  width  of  Abacus  (diagonal). 

i  D  equals  width  of  Dentil. 

f  D  equals  width  of  Modillion. 

ts  D  equals  width  of  Interdentil. 

i  „  .  f  height  of  Astragal. 

T2  D  equalsl  &  ,  . 

[projection  of  Astragal. 

s’  D  equals  height  of  Modillion. 


TIIE  COMPOSITE  ORDER-PLATES  XII  AND  XIII 

18.  The  Composite  Order,  Fig.  81,  is  a  heavier 
Corinthian,  just  as  the  Tuscan  is  a  simplified  Doric.  The 
chief  proportions  are  the  same  as  in  the  Corinthian  Order, 
but  the  details  are  fewer  and  larger.  It  owes  its  name  to 
the  Capital,  Fig.  82,  in  which  the  two  lower  rows  of  leaves 
and  the  Caulicoli  are  the  same  as  in  the  Corinthian.  But 
the  Caulicoli  carry  only  a  stunted  leaf-bud,  and  the  upper 
row  of  leaves  and  the  sixteen  Volutes  are  replaced  by  the 
large  Scrolls,  Echinus,  and  Astragal  of  a  complete  Ionic 
Capital,  with  four  faces  like  Scamozzi’s.  A  Composite  Cap¬ 
ital  thus  has  two  Astragals,  if  the  lower  be  included,  but 
this  properly  belongs  to  the  shaft.  The  Scrolls  are  nearly 
half  a  Diameter  high,  covering  up  half  the  Abacus  and  com¬ 
ing  down  so  as  to  touch  the  second  row  of  Acanthus  leaves. 
They  measure  fully  nine-sixths  across,  and  are  only  three- 
sixths  apart,  or  half  a  Diameter,  instead  of  four-sixths,  as  in 
the  Ionic. 

Vignola’s  Composite  Entablature,  Fig.  82,  differs  from  his 
Ionic  chiefly  in  the  shape  and  size  of  the  Dentils.  They  are 
larger,  and  are  more  nearly  square  in  elevation,  being  a  fifth 
of  a  Diameter  high,  and  one-sixth  wide,  the  Interdentil  being 
one-twelfth,  and  they  are  set  one-fourth  of  a  Diameter  apart, 
on  centers.  The  last  Dentil,  or  first  half  of  the  Double 
Dentil,  is  centered  over  the  outer  face  of  the  Column,  at  the 


54 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


bottom,  as  in  the  Corinthian,  Ionic,  and  Denticulated  Doric, 
Fig.  95.  The  outer  face  of  the  Double  Dentil  is  three- 
quarters  of  a  Diameter  from  the  axis  of  the  Column,  and 


there  is  only  one  Dentil  between  the  Double  Dentil  and 
the  one  over  the  axis,  against  two  in  the  Corinthian  and  Ionic, 
and  three  in  the  Denticulated  Doric.  The  Frieze  terminates 


/  .  ■{  .  '  ..  ,  . 


PAL-LADIO'S  PROPORTIONS  VIGNOLA'S  PROPORTIONS 


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55 


in  a  large  Conge  over  the  Architrave,  and  the  Corona  is 
undercut  with  a  large  quirked  Cyma  Recta,  making  a  drip. 


Fig.  83 


Palladio’s  Composite  Entablature,  Fig.  83,  is  more  char¬ 
acteristic  than  Vignola’s,  the  parts  being  fewer  and  larger. 
The  Architrave  has  two  Bands,  the  Frieze  terminates  in  two 
large  Conges,  and  the  Cornice  is  divided  into  two  equal 


56 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


11 


parts,  each  half  a  Diameter  high.  The  upper  half  is  shared 
about  equally  by  the  Cymatium  and  the  Corona,  and  the 
lower  half  is  almost  entirely  taken  up  by  a  series  of  large 
brackets,  or  blocks,  a  third  of  a  Diameter  high,  and  one- 
fourth  wide,  divided  into  two  Bands.  The  inner  face  of  the 
Double  Block  comes  just  in  line  with  the  Frieze  below, 
Fig.  102.  The  bands  and  mouldings  that  decorate  the  Blocks 
are  continued  between  them. 

These  dimensions  apply  to  Palladio’s  entablature  where  it 
is  made  of  the  same  size  as  Vignola’s,  that  is  to  say,  a 
quarter  of  the  height  of  the  column,  or  two  Diameters  and 
a  half.  But  Palladio  himself  made  his  Composite  entabla¬ 
ture  only  two  Diameters  high,  or  one-fifth  the  length  of  the 
column,  cutting  down  the  Frieze  to  half  a  Diameter,  the 
Architrave  to  two-thirds,  and  the  Cornice  to  five-sixths. 
If  the  dimensions  of  Palladio’s  Cornice  given  in  the  table 
are,  accordingly,  taken  from  the  upper  diameter  of  the  shaft 
instead  of  from  the  lower,  they  will  exactly  conform  to 
Palladio’s  own  usage. 

The  Block  entablature  used  by  Scamozzi  for  his  Composite 
Order  is  even  less  than  two  Diameters  in  height,  and  this 
seems  to  have  been  the  case  also  with  the  entablature  of  the 
Olympiseum  at  Athens,  which  Palladio  is  thought  to  have 
imitated. 

The  mouldings  below  the  Blocks  are  often  made  to  project 
more  than  in  Palladio’s  example.  This  increases  their  dis¬ 
tance  apart,  on  centers,  since  one  must  still  come  over  the 
axis  of  the  column  and  the  one  on  the  corner  must  be  as  far 
out  as  the  end  of  these  mouldings.  The  Blocks  also  vary 
considerably  in  length  in  different  examples. 

The  upper  part  of  the  Composite  Capital,  as  has  been 
said,  is  often  used  alone  as  a  variety  of  the  Ionic  Capital. 

The  Composite  Capital  is  employed  in  the  Arch  of  Titus 
in  Rome,  and  elsewhere,  with  a  Corinthian  entablature,  and 
the  Block  Cornice  occurs  in  the  so-called  frontispiece  of 
Nero,  as  well  as  in  the  temple  at  Athens,  in  connection  with 
a  Corinthian  Capital. 


THE  AMERICA 


Copyright,  1902,  by  William  R.  Ware 
Copyright,  1904.  by  International  Textbook  Company 


PLATE 


VIGNOLA 


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57 


TABLE  OF  THE  COMPOSITE  ORDER-PLATES  XVII  AND  XVIII 


2  D  =  i  D  equals! 


f  height  of  Scrolls. 


[space  between  Scrolls. 


1  D  equals  distance  of  Eyes,  o.  c. 


W  D  —  %  D  equals 


width  of  Scrolls, 
width  of  Plinth, 
width  of  Abacus. 


Vignola’s  Cornice 

1  [height  of  Dentil  Band. 

4  equa  s[ckstance  Qf  Dentils  on  centers. 

f  D  equals  distance  from  Axis  to  face  of  Double  Dentil. 

I  D  equals  height  of  Dentils. 

i  D  equals  width  of  Dentils. 

r2  D  equals  width  of  Interdentil. 


Palladio’s  Cornice 

,  _  ,  [height  of  Block. 

3  D  ecluals\length  of  Block. 

[  width  of  Block. 

.  height  of  Lower  Band. 
t  D  equals^ height  of  Corona. 

height  of  Cymatium. 
distance  between  Blocks  {plus). 


GEOMETRICAL  RELATIONS 

19.  The  dimensions  and  proportions  set  forth  in  the 
previous  paragraphs,  and  recapitulated  in  the  Tables,  enable 
one  to  draw  the  Five  Orders,  according  to  Vignola,  with 
great  accuracy  and  sufficiently  in  detail  for  all  the  ordi¬ 
nary  purposes  of  the  draftsman  and  designer.  The  figures 
for  the  larger  features  are  easily  remembered,  and  the 
smaller  divisions  and  subdivisions  can  for  the  most  part  be 


m  r 


/  / 
/  /' 
/  /' 

/  / 

k / 


i 


XV 


/ 


pnn  / 

i  / 


rrnn 


L 


/ 


0 


nun 

/ 


/ 


/ 


■Mutulary 

Doric 


£ 


7 


5 


> - 1- 


/ 


/ 


7 


T 


□ETC 


/ 


r 

or  Denticulated 


Doric 


Fig. 85 


§11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


59 


obtained  by  dividing  the  larger  into  two,  three,  four,  or  five 
equal  parts. 

But  besides  these  arithmetical  proportions  some  geomet¬ 
rical  relations  may  be  pointed  out,  which  are  calculated 
greatly  to  facilitate  the  work  of  draftsmanship,  drawing 
being  naturally  more  closely  related  to  Geometry  than  to 
Arithmetic. 

20.  Tines  at  45  Degrees. — The  proportions  of  any 
figure  that  is  as  wide  as  it  is  high,  and  which  can  accord¬ 
ingly  be  included  within  a  square,  are  most  easily  determined 
by  drawing  the  diagonal  of  the  square,  that  is  to  say,  by 
drawing  a  line  with  a  45-degree  triangle.  Such  figures  are, 
as  is  shown  in  the  Illustrations,  the  projections  of: 

1.  The  Echinus,  in  the  Tuscan,  Doric,  and  Ionic  Capitals, 
Figs.  84  and  85. 

2.  The  Abacus,  in  the  Tuscan  and  Doric  Capitals,  Figs.  84 

and  85.  i  i 

3.  The  Astragal,  in  all  the  Orders,  — I -  J - 

Fig.  86.  ^  S - 


4.  The  Architrave,  including  the 
Taenia,  in  the  Tuscan  and  Doric 
Orders,  counting  from  the  axis  of 
the  Column,  Figs.  84  and  85. 


Fig.  86 


5.  The  Taenia  itself,  and  the  Cymatium  that  takes  its 
place,  Figs.  84  and  85. 

6.  All  the  Cornices,  except  the  Doric,  Fig.  84. 

A  line  drawn  at  45  degrees  through  the  Doric  Cornice 
from  the  top  of  the  Frieze  gives,  where  it  cuts  the  upper 
line  of  the  Cornice: 

1.  The  face  of  the  Corona,  in  the  Denticulated  Doric, 
Fig.  85. 

2.  The  face  of  the  Mutule  in  the  Mutulary  Doric,  Fig.  85. 

A  line  drawn  at  45  degrees  through  the  Doric  Architrave 

and  Frieze,  from  a  point  on  the  axis  of  the  Column  and  of 
the  Triglyph,  taken  either  at  the  bottom  of  the  Ai'chitrave 
or  at  the  top  of  the  Frieze,  gives  the  axis  of  the  next 
Triglyph,  and  so  on,  Fig.  85. 


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THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


11 


A  45-degree  line  also  gives: 

1.  The  Shape  of  the  Metope,  Fig.  85. 

2.  The  Caps  of  the  Pedestals,  except  the  Tuscan,  Fig.  87. 

3.  The  Plinths  of  the  Doric  and  Attic  Bases,  Fig.  87. 


Fig.  87 


Lines  drawn  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  across  the  Corin¬ 
thian  Capital  from  the  extremities  of  its  lower  diameter  give 
the  width  of  the  Abacus,  Fig.  88. 

Where  they  cut  the  line  of  the  upper  diameter  of  the  shaft, 

extended,  they  give  the 
depth  of  the  Scroll,  Fig.  88. 

21.  Lines  at  GO  De¬ 
grees. —  In  like  manner, 
lines  drawn  at  an  angle 
of  60  degrees  through  the 
Bed  Mould  of  the  Ionic 
Cornice  from  a  point  on 
the  axis  of  the  Column, 
taken  either  on  the  upper 
line  of  the  Frieze  or  on  the 
upper  edge  of  the  Dentil 
Band,  give,  where  they  touch  the  upper  line  of  the  Frieze 
and  the  upper  line  of  the  Dentil  Band,  the  Axes  of  the 
Dentils,  and  the  outer  face  of  the  Double  Dentil,  Fig.  89. 


Fig.  88 


THE  AMERICA! 


Copyright,  1902,  by  William  R.  Ware 
Copyright,  1904,  by  International  Textbook  Company 


PLATE 


Abacus 


VIGNOLA 


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Scranton ,  /‘a. 


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Similar  lines  drawn  at  60  degrees  in  the  Corinthian  Cor¬ 
nice,  taken  from  a  point  where  the  axis  of  the  Column  cuts 
the  lower  edge  of  the  Corona,  give:  (a)  Where  they  cut  the 
lower  edge  of  the  Corona,  the  upper  line  of  the  Frieze,  and 


Fig.  89 

the  lower  line  of  the  Ovolo,  the  Axes  of  the  Modillions  and 
of  the  Dentils,  and  the  outer  face  of  the  Double  Dentil, 
very  nearly,  Fig.  90.  {b)  Where  they  cut  the  lower  line  of 

the  Modillion  Band,  the  width  of  the  Modillion,  and  the 
outer  face  of  the  Modillion  Band,  Fig.  90. 

(The  distance  from  the  edge  of  the  Corona  down  to  the 
lower  edge  of  the  Modillion  Band  is  one-third  the  distance 


Fig.  90 

down  to  the  top  of  the  Frieze,  and  the  distance  down  to  the 
lower  edge  of  the  Ovolo,  one-half.) 

22.  The  Ionic  Volute. — The  vertical  line  ab,  Fig.  91, 
through  the  center  of  the  eye  of  the  Ionic  volute,  and  the 


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THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


horizontal  line  cd,  will  mark  in  the  circumference  of  the  eye 
the  four  corners  of  a  square  within  which  a  fret  may  be 
drawn  whose  angles  will  serve  as  centers,  from  which  the 
curves  of  the  volute  may  be  described  mechanically.  The 
sides  of  the  square  above  referred  to  should  be  bisected, 
and  through  the  upper  points  thus  located  a  horizontal 
line  ef  should  be  drawn.  Now,  with  eg  as  a  radius,  the 
arc  gf  may  be  drawn  as  the  first  section  of  the  volute. 
Now,  through  the  point  h,  where  the  line  ef  bisects  the 


C 


side  of  the  square,  a  vertical  line  hk  should  be  drawn,  and 
with  hf  as  a  radius  the  arc  fk  may  be  struck.  From  h 
and  e  lines  should  be  drawn  at  45  degrees,  intersecting  at 
the  center  of  the  eye,  and  the  line  extending  from  h  to  the 
center  should  be  divided  into  three  equal  parts,  through 
which  the  corners  of  the  inscribed  fret  will  turn.  The 
point  /  on  the  line  h  k,  marking  the  lower  left-hand  corner 
of  the  inscribed  fret,  is  located  f  of  the  distance  between  h 
and  the  point  where  h  k  bisects  the  lower  side  of  the  square. 
I  then  forms  the  center  for  the  arc  km ,  and  the  rest  of 


§11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


63 


the  volute  is  described  from  centers  found  at  the  angles  of 
the  inscribed  fret. 

23.  Vertical  Lines. — The  outer  line  of  the  upper 
Diameter  of  the  Shaft  gives,  in  all  the  Orders,  Figs.  84 
and  85,  the  face  of  the  lower  band  of  the  Architrave,  and 
the  face  of  the  Frieze. 

In  the  Denticulated  Doric,  it  gives,  Fig.  85,  the  outer  face 
of  the  first  Dentil,  next  the  Double  Dentil. 

In  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  Orders,  it  gives  the  axis  of 
the  first  Interdentil. 

The  outer  line  of  the  lower  Diameter  of  the  Shaft,  pro¬ 
duced  upwards,  gives,  Figs.  84  and  85: 


Doric 


Fig.  92 


1.  The  projection  of  the  Astragal,  in  all  the  Orders, 
except  the  Tuscan  and  Doric. 

2.  The  projection  of  the  Taenia,  in  the  Tuscan  and  Doric. 

3.  The  projection  of  the  Fillet,  in  the  Bed  Mould  of  the 
Mutulary  Doric,  Fig.  85. 

4.  Twice  the  projection  of  the  Triglyph,  which  is  seen  in 
profile. 

5.  Half  the  projection  of  the  Tuscan  Bed  Mould,  of  the 
Tuscan  and  Doric  Abacus,  and  of  the  Doric  Mutule  Band. 

It  also  gives  the  Axis  of  the  Extreme  Dentil,  or  first 
half  of  the  Double  Dentil,  in  the  Denticulated  Doric,  Ionic, 
Corinthian,  and  Composite  Orders,  Figs.  92,  93,  94,  and  95, 
and  the  position  of  the  Eye  of  the  Ionic  Scroll,  which  is  on 
a  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  Echinus,  Fig.  91. 


64 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


11 


Fig.  94 


Composite 


Fig.  95 


11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


65 


DRAWING 

24.  General  Proportions. — Since  the  relative  size  of 
all  the  parts,  in  Vignola’s  Orders,  is  fixed,  any  of  them  can 
be  drawn  out  in  accordance  with  these  rules,  if  a  single 
dimension  is  determined.  The  width  of  a  Dentil  or  the 
length  of  a  Modillion  suffices  to  determine  everything  else. 
But  the  data  generally  given  are  either  the  lower  Diam¬ 
eter  of  a  Column,  the  height  of  a  Column,  or  the  whole 
height  of  the  Order,  with  or  without  a  Pedestal. 

I.  If  the  lower  Diameter  is  given,  the  procedure  is  as 
follows,  Fig.  96:  Divide  it  in  two,  draw  the  axis  of  the 
Column,  and  then  divide  each  half  into  three  equal  parts, 
Fig.  109;  this  gives  the  scale  of  sixths.  Divide  in  two  the 
two  outer  sixths;  this  gives  the  upper  Diameter  of  the 
shaft,  which  is  five-sixths.  Lay  off  on  the  axis  the  height 
of  the  Column — by  Diameters,  7,  8,  9,  or  10 — and  of  the 
Entablature,  which  is  one-fourth  the  height  of  the  Column. 
Mark  the  height  of  the  Base,  half  a  Diameter,  or  three-sixths, 
and  then  that  of  the  Capital,  two-,  three-,  or  seven-sixths. 

Then  divide  the  total  height  of  the  Entablature  into  seven, 
eight,  eighteen,  or  ten  equal  parts,  according  as  it  is  Tuscan, 
Doric,  Ionic,  or  Corinthian,  or  use  halves,  quarters,  or 
eighths  of  a  Diameter,  and  mark  the  heights  of  the  Archi¬ 
trave,  Frieze,  and  Cornice,  drawing  horizontal  lines  through 
the  points  of  division.  (Fig.  96  illustrates  this  procedure 
for  the  Tuscan  Order.)  Then  carry  up,  vertically,  the  outer 
lines  of  both  the  upper  and  the  lower  Diameters  of  the 
Shaft,  drawing  from  the  point  where  the  line  of  the  upper 
Diameter  cuts  the  lower  edge  of  the  Cornice  a  line  at 
45  degrees  to  determine  the  projection  of  the  Cymatium,  or 
that  of  the  Mutule  or  of  the  Corona. 

Add  one-third  of  the  height  of  the  Column  for  the  Ped¬ 
estal.  Divide  this  into  three  equal  parts,  taking  the  upper 
third  of  the  upper  third  for  the  Cap,  and  the  lower  two- 
thirds  of  the  lower  third  for  the  Base.  Vignola  makes 
the  Base  of  the  Pedestal  only  one-ninth  of  the  height  of  the 
Pedestal  instead  of  two-ninths  as  here  determined. 


66 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


Fig. 9G 


Fig.  97 


11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


67 


II.  If  the  height  of  the  Column  is  given,  a  fourth  part  of 
this  added  at  the  top  gives  the  height  of  the  Entablature,  and 
a  third  part  added  below  gives  the  height  of  the  Pedestal, 
Fig.  96.  One  seventh,  eighth,  ninth,  or  tenth  of  the  height 
of  the  column  gives  the  lower  Diameter  of  the  Shaft.  The 
drawing  may  then  be  carried  forwards  as  above. 

III.  If  the  total  height  of  the  Order  is  given,  without  the 
Pedestal,  a  division  into  five  equal  parts  gives  four  parts  for 
the  Column  and  one  for  the  Entablature,  Fig.  96. 

If  there  is  a  Pedestal,  and  it  is  of  the  regular  height  of 
one-third  the  height  of  the  Column,  the  division  of  the  total 
height  must  be  into  nineteen  equal  parts,  four  of  which  go 
to  the  Pedestal,  twelve  to  the  Column,  and  three  to  the 
Entablature,  Fig.  97. 

The  lower  Diameter  can  then  be  obtained  from  the  height 
of  the  Column,  and  the  drawing  completed,  as  above. 

Note. — The  division  of  a  given  dimension  into  equal  parts  may  be 
effected  with  the  dividers,  or,  more  easily,  by  using  a  scale  of  equal 
parts  that  are  the  same  in  number  as  the  desired  subdivisions,  but  a 
little  larger,  and  holding  this  scale  obliquely  between  the  extreme 
limits  of  the  space  to  be  divided,  Figs.  96  and  97.  The  division  of 
vertical  dimensions  into  five,  seven,  eight,  nine,  ten,  eighteen,  or 
nineteen  equal  parts,  as  here  required,  is  thus  easily  accomplished. 
To  insure  accuracy,  the  lines  mark¬ 
ing  these  divisions  should  be  hori¬ 
zontal,  not  normal  to  the  direction 
of  the  scale. 

25.  Cornices. — The  Tus¬ 
can  Cornice  may  be  drawn  by 
dividing  its  height  into  quar¬ 
ters,  as  is  done  in  the  figure, 
giving  the  upper  quarter  to 
the  Ovolo  and  the  lower  to  the 
bed  mould,  and  the  middle 
half  to  the  Corona,  Bead,  and 
Fillet,  Fig.  98.  A  45-degree 
the  Bed  Mould,  Ovolo,  and  the 

The  Doric  Cornice  is  also  divided  in  four  equal  parts,  the 
upper  one  comprising  the  Cymatium  and  Fillet,  the  next  the 
Corona  and  the  small  Cyma  Reversa  above  it,  the  third 
the  Mutules  (or  the  Dentils  with  the  Mutules  above  them). 


Fig. 98 


line  gives  the  projection  of 
Cornice  itself. 


68 


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11 


and  the  lower  one  the  Bed  Mould,  including  the  cap  of  the 
Triglyph,  which  is  narrower  in  the  Mutulary  Doric  than 

in  the  Denticulated  by  the 
'1  y-' width  of  the  Fillet  above 
— it,  Figs.  99  and  100. 

A  45-degree  line  drawn 
outwards  from  the  middle 
of  the  top  of  the  Abacus 
gives,  where  it  cuts  the 
lower  line  of  the  Frieze,  the 
projection  of  the  Taenia. 
A  similar  line,  where  it 
cuts  the  upper  line  of  the 
Frieze,  gives  the  axes  of  the  next  Triglyph,  Fig.  85.  The 
Triglyphs  are  drawn  next,  with  their  Cap,  and  the  Regula 
and  Guttae,  then  the  Mutules,  or  the  Dentils. 


Fig. 99 


Fig.  100 


In  the  Doric  Order  a  line  at  45  degrees  drawn  from  the 
bottom  of  the  Cornice  gives  the  face  of  the  Corona  in  the 


11 


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69 


Denticulated  Doric,  the  face  of  the  Mutule  in  the  Mutulary; 
in  the  other  Orders,  a  similar  line  gives  the  projection  of 
the  Cymatium,  Figs.  99  and  100. 

In  putting  in  Dentils,  draw  first  the  one  over  the  Axis  of 
the  Column,  then  the  Double  Dentil,  the  first  half  of  which 
is  centered  over  the  lower  face  of  the  Column,  and  then  the 
intermediate  ones,  three,  two  or  one,  according  as  the  Order 
is  Doric,  Ionic,  Corinthian,  or  Composite,  Figs.  92,  93,  94, 
and  95.  The  Interdentil  is 
half  the  width  of  the  Dentil, 
except  in  the  Composite. 

One  Corinthian  Modillion 
comes  over  the  axis  of  the 
corner  column  and  one  over 
the  outer  face  of  the  Double 
Dentil,  Fig.  94.  In  drawing  the  side  of  a  Modillion,  put  in 
first,  at  the  outer  end,  a  semicircle  half  its  height  and  one 
at  the  inner  end  nearly  the  whole  height;  then  the  rosettes, 
one  twice  as  large  as  the  other;  then  the  connecting  curves, 
and  finally  the  leaf  beneath,  Fig.  101. 


t  /z^r 


7 


Y 


Composite 
Fig. 102 


In  Palladio’s  Composite  Cornice,  one  block  is  set  over  the 
axis  of  the  column,  and  the  double  block  at  the  corner  has 
its  inner  face  on  a  line  with  the  face  of  the  Frieze  below. 
The  blocks  are  about  half  a  Diameter  o.  c.,  the  interblock 
being  one-twenty-fourth  of  a  Diameter  wider  than  the  block 
itself,  Fig.  102. 

26.  Architraves. — The  Tuscan  Architrave,  Fig.  103, 
has  but  one  fascia  or  band,  the  Composite  two,  Fig.  107,  and 


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THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


the  Corinthian  three,  Fig.  106.  The  Doric  has  sometimes 
one,  but  generally  two,  Fig.  104,  and  the  Ionic  has  gener¬ 
ally  two,  Fig.  105,  but  sometimes  three.  The  lower  band 
is  always  the  narrowest  and  is  set  on  a  line  with  the  face  of 
the  shaft  below  and  of  the  Frieze  above. 


Ionic 


Fig.  104 


Fig. 105 


7 


All  the  Architraves  have  a  Cymatium,  or  crowning  mem¬ 
ber,  which  in  the  Tuscan  and  Doric  is  a  broad  Fillet,  called 
the  Taenia,  and  in  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  is  a  large  Cyma 
Reversa,  surmounted  by  a  Fillet  and  generally  supported  by 
a  bead.  The  lower  bands  often  have,  as  a  Cymatium,  a 
small  Cyma  Reversa,  Bead,  or  Ovolo,  and  all  three  bands  are 
sometimes  sloped  backwards,  as  in  the  Entablature  of  the 

porch  of  the  Pantheon  in 
Rome,  Fig.  108,  so  as  to 
diminish  the  projection 
of  the  crowning  mould¬ 
ings,  which  generally 
have  a  projection,  be¬ 
yond  the  face  of  the 
Frieze,  equal  to  their 
height. 

The  Tuscan  Taenia 
has  beneath  it  the  char¬ 
acteristic  Tuscan  conge,  Fig.  103.  Beneath  the  Doric  Taenia, 
and  directly  under  each  Triglyph,  Fig.  104,  is  a  narrow  Fillet, 
which  sometimes  has  a  beveled  face,  called  the  Regula, 
beneath  which  are  the  six  Guttae.  These  are  sometimes 
frustra  of  cones,  as  in  the  Greek  Order,  sometimes  of 


*^5 


~TJ 


3T 


Gorinfbia.n 
Fig.  106 


THE  AMERICA: 


_  Copyright ,  1002,  by  William  R.  Ware 
Copyright ,  1904,  by  International  Textbook  Company 


PLATE 


VIGNOLA 


V 


International  Textbook  Company , 
Scranton ,  Pa. 


11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


71 


pyramids.  The  Guttae,  which  almost  touch  at  the  bottom, 
are  twice  as  high  as  the  Regula.  Both  together  are  just  as 
high  as  the  Taenia,  or  one-twelfth  of  Diameter,  so  that  the 
three  are  one-sixth  of  a  Diameter  high.  They  accordingly 
occupy  the  upper  third  of  the  height  of  the  Architrave, 
which  is  three-sixths  high,  the  lower  band  occupying  the 
lower  third. 

The  two  lower  bands  of  the  Corinthian  Architrave  occupy 
half  its  height,  and  the  lower  band  with  its  Cymatium  is 


Compostfe  Porch  of  the  Pantheon 

Fig. 107  Fig. 108 


just  as  wide  as  the  mouldings  that  crown  the  upper  band. 
The  second  band  with  its  Cymatium  is  just  as  wide  as  the 
third  band  without,  Fig.  106. 

27.  Capitals  and  Bases. — In  drawing  Capitals,  it  is 
best  to  put  in  first  the  axis  of  the  column  and  the  vertical 
faces  of  the  Shaft;  then  the  horizontal  lines,  and  lastly  the 
profile,  beginning  at  the  top.  But  in  drawing  Bases,  it  is 
best  to  put  in  the  profile  of  the  moulding  before  the  hori¬ 
zontal  lines. 

The  Tuscan  Base,  Fig.  109,  is  half  a  Diameter  high,  half 
of  which  goes  to  the  Plinth  and  half  to  the  Base  Moulding, 
which  is  made  to  include  the  Cincture,  or  broad  Fillet  at  the 
bottom  of  the  Shaft,  which  in  the  other  Orders  is  not  counted 
as  part  of  the  Base.  But  this  is  merely  saying  that  the  Tus¬ 
can  Base  is  not  quite  half  a  Diameter  high. 


72 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


All  the  other  Bases,  including  the  Attic  Base,  are  just  half 
a  Diameter  high.  All  the  Plinths  are  eight-sixths  wide  and 
one-sixth  high,  except  the  Tuscan  and  Doric,  which  are 


1 

i 

1 

/ 

~j 

Fig.  109 


5 

6 

II  1  u 

_ 

1  1  II 

6 

Tuscan 


one-quarter  of  a  Diameter  high.  It  is  not  worth  while  to 
define  the  proportions  of  the  other  Bases. 

The  Tuscan  Capital,  Fig.  109,  is  half  a  Diameter  high,  or 
three-sixths,  the  upper  sixth  comprising  the  Abacus  with  its 
Fillet,  the  middle  sixth  the  Echinus  and  the  Fillet  below  it, 
and  the  lower  sixth  the  Necking.  The  upper  Fillet  is  a 


- y 

V 

r  j  -- 

Doric 

Mu) 

uJary 

Den 

p 

■Hculaled 

Fig.  110 


quarter  of  a  sixth  wide,  the  lower  one  a  sixth  of  a  sixth. 
The  Abacus  is  seven-sixths  wide;  i.  e.,  it  projects  one-sixth 
on  each  side  beyond  the  upper  diameter  of  the  Shaft. 


11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


73 


The  Doric  Capital,  Fig.  110,  is  also  three-sixths  of  a 
Diameter  high,  the  two  upper  sixths  being  divided  into  thirds, 
and  these  again  into  thirds,  to  give  the  height  of  the  smaller 
mouldings.  The  Denticulated  Capital  generally  has  three 
Fillets,  the  Mutulary,  a  Bead  and  Fillet. 

The  Astragal,  which  in  the  other  Capitals  is  one-twelfth  of 
a  Diameter  high,  or  half  a  sixth,  is  in  the  Tuscan  and  Doric 
Orders  one-fourth  smaller,  or  one-  . 
sixteenth  of  a  Diameter,  the  Bead 
being  one-twenty-fourth  of  a  Diam¬ 
eter  high,  or  a  quarter  of  a  sixth. 

In  drawing  the  Astragals,  draw 
first  the  horizontal  line  at  the  top, 
which  occupies  two-thirds  of  the  pro¬ 
jection,  otherwise  the  Conge  below  is  apt  to  be  slighted. 
The  Bead  and  Conge  should  have  their  full  measure  of 
180  degrees  and  90  degrees,  Fig.  111. 

The  Ionic  Capital, 


c 


c 


thus 


Not  ttas 


Fig. Ill 


3  and  2 


which  is  one-third  of  a 
Diameter  in  height,  or 
four -twelfths,  is  also 
divided  into  three  parts, 
but  unequally.  The 
Abacus  occupies  the 
upper  quarter,  or  one- 
twelfth,  and  had  better 
be  put  in  first.  The 
Echinus  occupies  rather 
more  than  half  of  the  re¬ 
maining  space,  namely, 
five-ninths.  In  the 
Composite  Capital,  the 
Abacus  occupies  the  up¬ 
per  sixth,  and  a  little  more,  and  the  Echinus  and  the  Astragal 
the  next  one,  Fig.  82. 

The  Eyes  of  the  Ionic  Scroll  are  in  line  with  the  top  of 
the  Astragal  and  with  the  lower  Diameter  of  the  Column, 
and  should  be  put  in  first,  Fig.  112.  The  Scrolls  make  three 


1  and  1 


s 

(, 

5  ) 

/ 

'I 

2  and  2 


Fig.  112 


74 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


complete  turns  and  finally  are  tangent  to  the  upper  side  of 
the  eye.  They  can  best  be  drawn  by  putting  in  first  three 
semicircles  on  the  outer  side,  and  then  three  smaller  ones  on 
the  inner  side.  In  working  on  a  small  scale,  two  semicircles 
on  each  side  will  suffice,  or  three  on  the  outer  side  and  two 
on  the  inner,  as  in  the  plates.  But  one  is  never  enough. 
The  Eyes  of  the  Composite  and  of  the  Roman  Ionic  Capitals 
are  set  nearer  together,  Fig.  82. 

In  drawing  a  Corinthian  Capital,  Fig.  113,  it  is  best  to  put 
in  first  the  Astragal  and  the  lower  line  of  the  Architrave, 
carrying  up  on  each  side  the  outer  lines  of  the  Shaft;  then 
the  Abacus,  Fleuron,  and  Scrolls.  The  double  scroll  at  the 
corner  falls  just  outside  these  vertical  lines.  It  appears 


Fig. 113 


Fig.  114 


slightly  elliptical  in  shape,  not  circular,  and  the  outer  scroll 
is  more  elliptical  than  the  inner,  being  more  foreshortened. 
The  small  scrolls  under  the  Fleuron  are  also  foreshortened 
into  ellipses.  Then  the  five  leaves  of  second  row,  the  mid¬ 
dle  one  in  elevation,  the  two  side  ones  in  profile,  and  the 
other  two  at  45  degrees,  carrying  down  the  mid-ribs  to  the 
Astragal.  Their  tips  turn  down  half  a  sixth,  those  of 
the  corner  leaves  coming  just  on  the  outer  lines  of  the  upper 
shaft.  Of  the  four  leaves  of  the  lower  row,  the  two  inner 
ones  occupy  the  spaces  between  these  mid-ribs,  and  the  ends 
that  turn  over  fall  entirely  within  the  outline  of  the  lower 
parts.  The  two  outer  leaves  extend  on  either  side  slightly 
beyond  the  width  of  the  shaft  below,  and  their  tips  fall  just 


§11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


75 


outside  the  lower  line  of  the  leaves,  being  about  six-sixths 
of  a  Diameter  apart.  They  accordingly  come  just  over  the 
outer  lines  of  the  lower  Diameter,  just  as  the  tips  of  the 
corner  leaves  above  them  come  on  the  lines  of  the  upper 
Diameter. 

A  line  drawn  tangent  to  the  Astragal  and  to  the  Abacus 
is  also  tangent  in  all  three  rows  of  leaves,  very  nearly.  The 
Caulicoli,  the  Buttons,  the  third  row  of  leaves,  and  the  lower 
parts  of  the  Volutes  follow,  in  this  order. 

I  he  smaller  the  scale  of  the  drawing,  the  more  straight 
and  upright  should  the  Acanthus  leaves  be  made,  Fig.  114. 


THE  GREEK  ORDERS 

28.  Although  the  different  examples  of  the  Greek  Doric 
and  Ionic  Orders  differ  considerably  among  themselves,  both 
in  the  proportions  of  the  Columns  and  in  the  treatment  of 
details,  the  proportions  of  the  Entablature  are  tolerably  uni¬ 
form  and  are,  in  general,  the  same  for  both  Orders,  the 
Architrave  and  Frieze  being  both  about  three-quarters  of  a 
Diameter  in  height  and  the  Cornice  about  half  a  Diameter, 
Figs.  115  and  122.  The  Entablatures,  as  has  been  said,  are 
about  two  Diameters  high,  however  tall  or  short  the  Col¬ 
umns  may  be.  Their  chief  characteristic  is  the  height  of  the 
Architrave  and  the  shallowness  of  the  Cornice.  The  Diminu¬ 
tion  and  the  Entasis  of  the  Columns  begin  at  the  bottom  of 
the  Shaft. 

29.  The  Greek  Doric. — The  Greek  Doric,  Plate  XIV, 
has  no  Base,  the  Shaft  standing  upon  three  large  steps,  the 
upper  one  of  which  is  called  the  Stylobate ,  Fig.  115.  It  has 
generally  twenty  Channels,  Fig.  116,  which  are  generally  ellip¬ 
tical  in  section,  but  some  small  Columns  have  only  sixteen,  or 
even,  as  at  Argos,  fourteen,  Fig.  117.  In  a  number  of  exam¬ 
ples,  an  Arris  instead  of  a  Channel  comes  on  the  axis  of 
the  Column,  as  is  seen  both  at  Argos  and  at  Assos,  Fig.  118. 
Instead  of  an  Astragal,  a  groove,  or  Sinkage ,  separates  the 
Shaft  from  the  Necking  of  the  Capital,  and  the  Channels 


76 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


11 


Fig.  115 


Fig.  116 


§11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


77 


are  carried  past  it  quite  up  to  the  Fillets  at  the  base  of  the 
Echinus,  Fig.  116.  These  Fillets  vary  in  number.  They 
are  not  vertical  on  the  face,  but  follow  and  continue  the 


Fig.  118 


slope  of  the  Echinus,  and  their  upper  surfaces  are  also 
beveled,  Fig.  119.  The  Echinus  itself  has  an  elliptical  or 
hyperbolic  profile,  the  earlier  examples  being  the  most  con¬ 
vex  and  the  later  ones  hardly  differing 
from  a  straight  line.  The  Abacus  has  no 
mouldings. 

The  Architrave  also  is  plain,  and  is 
crowned  by  a  Taenia,  below  which  is  a 
broad  Regula  and  six  short  Guttae.  In 
the  earlier  examples,  the  face  of  the  Archi¬ 
trave  is  set  just  over  and  in  line  with 
the  upper  Diameter  of  the  Shaft,  but 
in  the  later  ones  it  overhangs,  coming 
over  the  lower  Diameter,  and  the  Echinus 
is  made  steeper,  as  well  as  straighter,  as  has  been  said,  as 
if  to  support  it. 

The  Triglyphs  in  the  Frieze  are  shorter  and  broader  than 
in  the  Roman  Doric,  and  are  set  flush  with  the  Architrave 


78 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


11 


below,  the  Metopes  being  set  back.  They  are  also  thicker 
than  the  Roman  Triglyphs,  and  the  Channels  are  deeper, 
those  at  the  edges  cutting  back  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  the 
others  generally  at  60  degrees,  and  they  run  nearly  up  to  the 
broad  Fillet,  or  Band,  that  constitutes  the  Cap  of  the  Triglyph. 


the  Soffit  of  the  Corona  slope  up,  and  have  only  eighteen 
Guttse,  and  they  occur  over  the  Metopes  as  well  as  over  the 
Triglyphs,  Fig.  120.  The  Mutules  are  thicker  than  those  in 
the  Denticulated  Doric,  though  not  so  thick  as  in  the  Mutulary. 
The  Cymatium  generally  consists  of  an  elliptical  Ovolo  and  a 
Fillet,  the  Soffit  of  which  is  beveled.  But  different  examples 
vary  in  almost  every  one  of  these  particulars. 

At  the  corner  of  a  building  the  Triglyphs  are  set,  not 
over  the  axis  of  the  Column,  but  at  the  extreme  end  of 


§11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


79 


the  Frieze,  two  coming  together  and  making  a  solid  block. 
As  the  Metopes  do  not  vary  in  size,  being  nearly  square, 
this  brings  the  three  corner  columns  nearer  together  than 
the  others. 

In  the  best  Greek  examples  the  columns  all  slope  in 
a  little,  so  that  the  corner  column,  which  is  a  little  bigger 
than  the  others,  has  its  inner  face  nearly  vertical.  The 
horizontal  lines  curve  slightly,  being  convex  up,  the  vertical 
faces  incline  a  little,  either  out  or  in,  and  the  mouldings  are, 
as  has  been  said,  generally  elliptical  or  hyperbolic  in  section, 
rather  than  arcs  of  circles. 

The  Columns  vary  in  height  from  about  five  to  eight 
Diameters,  the  earlier  ones  being  the  shortest,  and  the 
Entasis,  or  Curvature  in  the  outline  of  the  Shaft,  and 
the  Diminution  in  the  width  of  the  Shaft,  from  bottom  to 
top,  which  sometimes  amounts  to  one-third  of  the  Diameter, 
are  much  more  pronounced  in  the  earlier  examples  than  in  the 
later  ones,  Fig.  121.  This  seems  to  show  that  the  original 
of  the  Doric  column  was  not  a  wooden  post,  as  has  been 
thought,  nur  a  pile  of  masonry,  but  a  piece  of  rubble  work, 
probably,  like  the  rubble  walls,  covered  with  stucco. 

30.  The  Greek  Ionic. — The  general  proportions  of  the 
Greek  Ionic  Entablature,  Plate  XV,  are,  as  has  been  said, 
about  the  same  as  in  the  Doric,  but  the  Columns  are  more 
slender,  varying  from  about  seven  Diameters  in  height  to 
more  than  ten,  and  the  Architrave,  Frieze,  and  Cornice  are 
often  made  very  nearly  equal  in  height,  Fig.  122. 

The  Base  is  like  the  Attic  Base,  except  that  the  Scotia  is 
larger,  constituting  the  principal  feature,  that  the  upper 
Torus  is  larger  than  the  lower  one,  that  the  Fillet  above  the 
Scotia  projects  as  far  as  the  face  of  this  Torus,  and  that  there 
is  no  Plinth.  As  the  base  is  still  half  a  Diameter  high,  the 
upper  Torus  and  Scotia  are  very  much  larger  than  in  the 
Roman  Attic  Base.  The  lower  Torus  is  sometimes  very 
small  indeed,  and  is  occasionally  omitted  altogether,  as  at 
Samos,  Fig.  123,  and  in  one  of  the  Choragic  columns  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  Fig.  69. 


80 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


Fig.  122 


11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


81 


The  Shaft  is  fluted  just  as  in  the  Roman  Ionic,  having 
twenty-four  channels,  and  the  Capital  resembles,  in  general, 


Fro.  123 


Fig. 124 


Vignola’s  Capital  with  Balusters.  But  the  Scrolls  are  much 
larger,  measuring  a  full  diameter  and  a  half  from  side  to 
side,  and  two-thirds  of 
a  Diameter  from  the 
Architrave  to  the  bot¬ 
tom  of  the  curve.  The 
Capital,  measured  from 
the  Architrave  down  to 
the  Astragal,  is  half  a 
Diameter  high,  instead 
of  a  third,  the  Abacus 
is  very  small,  consisting 
generally  of  a  single 
Ovolo,  and  the  Cushion 
between  the  Abacus  and 
the  Echinus  very  wide, 
its  lower  outline  being 
curved  downwards, 

Fig.  124.  The  sprigs  of 
honeysuckle,  accord¬ 
ingly,  do  not  cover  the  eggs  and  darts,  five  of  which  are 
visible  between  the  Scrolls,  instead  of  three. 


82 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


Fig. 126 


Fig.  127 


11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


83 


The  Architrave  is  sometimes  plain,  sometimes  divided 
into  two  or  three  bands.  The  Frieze,  or  Zoophorus,  is  wide, 
and  the  Bed  Mould  that  crowns  it  is  often  countersunk  into 


Fig.  128 


Fig. 129 


the  Soffit  of  the  Corona,  so  that  it  does  not  show  in  eleva¬ 
tion,  Fig.  122.  It  is  noticeable  that  though  Dentils  are, 
historically,  a  distinctively  Ionic  feature,  they  are  omitted 
in  many  Greek  examples.  The  Cymatium  is  a  large  Cyma 


84 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


Recta,  and  has  a  Fillet  and  Bead  below  it,  which  is  some¬ 
times  undercut,  so  as  to  make  a  little  Beak  Moulding. 

But  here,  as  in  the  Greek  Doric,  there  is  a  great  variety  in 
the  details  of  different  buildings. 

The  four  faces  of  the  Capital  are  sometimes  made  alike, 
with  double  Scrolls  on  each  corner,  as  in  the  Roman  Ionic, 


and  these  Scrolls  are  sometimes  connected  under  the  Abacus 
by  a  continuous  curve,  convex  up,  instead  of  by  a  horizontal 
line,  big.  125.  Sometimes  a  corner  column  shows  Scrolls  on 

the  two  outer  faces  and  Bal¬ 
usters  on  the  two  inner  ones, 
the  double  scroll  on  the  cor¬ 
ner  projecting  at  45  degrees, 
Fig.  126.  Some  examples 
have  a  wide  Necking,  adorned 
with  the  honeysuckle  orna¬ 
ment,  below  the  Echinus, 
Fig.  127. 

A  few  Corinthian  Capitals 
are  to  be  found  in  Greece,  but  the  buildings  in  which  they 
occur  are  in  other  respects  Ionic,  or  even  Doric,  Fig,  128. 

In  the  later  Greek  colonies  in  Southern  Italy  are  found 
interesting  varieties  of  all  the  Orders. 

Their  most  marked  peculiarity  is  the  treatment  of  the 
details,  Fig.  130.  The  Triglyphs  and  Dentils  are  long  and 
slender,  and  the  mouldings  refined  in  outline  and  sometimes 


Fig. 132 


'  ' 


PLATE  XVI 


►CJ  - 


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< 

o 

£ 

o 


> 


55 

< 

O 


Pi 

w 


w 

X 

E-| 


?S 

« 


10 
:  ^ 


*  K 


II 


k  s 

7- 


t>  it 


PI  LA 


DR.AW  WITH  WfC 
THE 


B 


C 


TUSCAN 


7 


ACCOFjDINC 

:DE5TALb 


TO 


PEC 


/I 


Dnt  A 


:n 


DORIC 


PE 

OLA  THE  PEDESTAL  IS  ONEfTHiF 
,|w N  ACCORDING  to  SIR  WM  CHAMpER’5 


JD 


PI  LAST; 


14596 


§11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


85 


separated  by  deep  grooves,  rectangular  or  circular,  which  are 
not  to  be  mistaken  for  mouldings.  The  Architraves  lose 
their  importance,  the  Ionic  Scrolls  are  often  diminished  in 
size,  and  the  egg-and-dart  moulding  is  changed  into  what 
are  sometimes  called  Filberts ,  Fig.  130.  The  Corinthian 
Capitals  receive  a  local  development  quite  unlike  that  which 
was  finally  adopted  in  Rome  itself,  as  may  be  witnessed 
at  Tivoli,  Fig.  131,  Pompeii,  and  Herculaneum,  Fig.  132. 
Since  the  revival  of  Greek  architecture  other  variations  have 
appeared  in  France,  Germany,  and  Italy. 


PILASTERS— PLATE  XVI 


31.  The  Romans  made  their  Pilaster  Capitals  resemble 
those  of  the  Columns.  This  works  well,  except  with  the 
Ionic  Capital,  in  which  the  projecting  Echinus  presents  an 
almost  insuperable  difficulty,  Fig.  133. 

As  Pilasters  do  not  generally  diminish  in  width  at  the 
top,  their  Capitals  are  one-fifth  broader  than  those  of  the 


Fig. 133 

Columns.  But  Pilasters  are  often  made  half  a  sixth  narrower 
than  the  Columns  at  the  bottom,  and  half  a  sixth  wider  at 
the  top,  having  thus  a  uniform  Diameter  of  five-sixths  and  a 
half.  In  the  Corinthian  Pilaster  Capital,  the  extra  space  is 
taken  up  by  making  the  leaves  a  little  broader,  -and  setting 
them  farther  apart,  Fig.  134. 


Column 


Fig. 134 


Pilaster 


Fig.  135 


Pilaster 


§11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


87 


Pilasters  generally  project  from  the  wall  a  quarter  of  their 
diameter,  but  sometimes  have  to  be  made  thicker  in  order 
to  receive  string  courses  or  other  horizontal  mouldings  that 
they  cut  across.  If  made  much  thicker  than  this,  they  are 
apt  to  look  thicker  than  the  columns 
alongside  them,  and  piers  always  do, 
noticeably  enhancing  the  slenderness  of 
the  columns  near  them. 

The  Greeks  gave  their  Pilasters  Bases 
like  those  of  the  Columns,  but  Capitals 
of  their  own,  composed  of  a  series  of 
mouldings,  Fig.  135. 

Pilasters  are  preferable  to  half  col¬ 
umns,  which  always  look  smaller  than 
they  are,  and  have  a  mean  appearance. 

Moreover,  any  mouldings  that  they  inter¬ 
rupt  seem  to  cut  them  in  two,  Fig.  136. 

In  these  respects,  three-quarter  columns 
are  better,  though  they  are  apt  to  look 
clumsy,  and  they  inevitably  make  an 
awkward  junction  with  the  wall  behind 
them.  They  also  make  it  uncertain 
which  is  the  principal  supporting  mem¬ 
ber,  the  wall  or  the  column. 

PEDESTALS— PLATE  XVI 

32.  As  has  already  been  said,  a 
short  Pier  is  called  a  Post,  and,  if  it 
supports  something,  a  Pedestal,  and 
the  Pedestals  that  support  Columns  ai'e 
generally  made  one-third  the  height  of 
the  Column.  The  Cap  is  one-ninth  the 
height  of  the  Pedestal,  and  generally  From  the  F&rnese  Paia-oe 
consists  of  a  Bed  Mould  and  Corona.  FlG'  130 

There  is  no  Cymatium,  a  gutter  being  obviously  out  of  place, 
but  the  Corona  is  crowned  by  a  fillet  and  small  Cyma 
Reversa.  The  Base,  which  is  two-ninths  of  the  height  of 
the  Pedestal,  or,  according  to  Vignola,  only  one-ninth,  like 


88 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


the  Cap,  consists  of  a  Plinth  and  Base  Mouldings,  among 
which  a  Cyma  Recta  is  generally  conspicuous,  with  a  Torus 
below  it. 

The  mouldings,  in  both  Cap  and  Base,  are  fewer  and  conse¬ 
quently  larger  and  simpler  in  the  Tuscan  and  Doric  Orders 
than  in  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian,  the  Tuscan,  according  to 
Vignola,  having  no  Corona,  and  the  Corinthian  a  Necking 
and  Astragal.  The  Cap  projects  less  than  its  own  height, 

in  many  examples,  and 
the  Plinth  just  as  much 
as  the  Corona. 

But  Pedestals  vary 
greatly  both  in  their 
proportions  and  in  their 
mouldings. 

33.  Parapets. — A 
wall  low  enough  to  lean 
upon  is  called  a  Para¬ 
pet,  and  whether  low  or 
high  is  often  strength¬ 
ened  by  occasional  Posts 
or  Pedestals,  sometimes 
of  the  same  height, 
sometimes  higher.  In 
either  case  the  wall  or  parapet  has  a  Cap  and  Base,  which 
may  or  may  not  be  like  those  of  the  Pedestals  or  Posts. 
A  similar  strip  of  wall,  with  the  wall  continued  above  the 
Cap,  is  called  a  Continuous  Pedestal ,  Fig.  143.  This  often 
occurs  between  the  Pedestals  that  support  Pilasters. 

34.  Balustrades. — In  antiquity,  Parapets  were  often 
pierced  by  triangular  penetrations,  apparently  in  imitation 
of  wooden  fences,  Fig.  137.  But  in  modern  times  the  open¬ 
ings  in  Parapets  are  generally  filled  with  a  sort  of  colonnade 
of  dwarfed  columns  called  Balusters.  These  frequently 
occupy  the  whole  space  between  one  Post  or  Pedestal  and 
the  next,  forming  a  Balustrade,  Fig.  138.  If  the  distance 
is  great,  so  that  the  Cap  has  to  be  made  of  several  lengths 


§11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


89 


of  stone,  a  block  called  an  Uncut  Baluster  is  placed  under 
the  joint.  Not  more  than  a  dozen  Balusters  should  occur 
together  without  such  interruption.  Against  the  Pedestal 


is  often  set  a  Half-Baluster ,  or,  which  is  better,  half  of  an 
Uncut  Baluster,  to  support  the  end  of  the  Upper  Rail,  Fig.  139. 

35.  The  Cap  and  Base  of  the  Pedestals,  or  of  the  Par¬ 
apet  or  Continuous  Pedestal,  are  called  in  a  Balustrade  the 
Upper  and  Lower  Rails. 

The  Baluster  supports 
the  Upper  Rail  as  a  Col¬ 
umn  supports  an  En¬ 
tablature,  and  stands 
upon  the  Lower  Rail 
as  upon  a  Stylobate, 

Fig.  139.  It  has  its 
own  Cap,  the  height  of 
which,  including  the 
Astragal,  is  one-quarter  the  height  of  the  Baluster-,  and 
which  consists  of  a  plain  Abacus,  Echinus,  and  Fillet  and 
Necking.  These  three  members  are  of  equal  height,  as  in 
the  Tuscan  and  Doric  Capitals. 

The  Base  of  the  Baluster  is  also  one-quarter  its  total 
height  and  resembles  the  Attic  Base.  The  Scotia,  as  in  the 
Greek  Attic  Base,  is  generally  made  the  principal  member. 

Between  the  Cap  and  Base  is  the  Shaft,  or  Sleeve ,  which 
has  the  outline  of  a  Quirked  Cyma  Reversa,  the  greatest 
diameter,  or  Belly ,  coming  at  about  one-fourth  of  its  height, 


90 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


or  one-third  the  height  of  the  Baluster,  Fig.  140.  Its  width 
at  this  point  is  also  one-third  the  height  of  the  Baluster,  as 
is  also  that  of  the  Plinth  of  the  Base,  exactly,  and  the  width 
of  the  Abacus,  almost.  The  Necking  is  less  than  half  as 
wide.  The  point  of  contrary  flexure  in  the  Cyma  Reversa  is 
half  way  between  Cap  and  Base,  or  between  the  Upper  and 
Lower  Rails.  But  these  proportions  are  made  somewhat 
lighter  for  use  with  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  Orders. 

The  Rails  are  sometimes,  in  height,  one-sixth  and  two- 
sixths  of  the  space  between  them,  like  the  Cap  and  Base  of  a 


Balusfer* 


Fig.  140  Fig.  141  Fig.  142 

Continuous  Pedestal;  but  they  are  often  made  much  heavier, 
even  one-third  and  one-half. 

Instead  of  the  Cyma  Reversa,  a  Beak  Moulding  is  often 
used,  Fig.  141,  and  other  variations  are  frequent.  Of  these, 
the  most  important  is  the  so-called  Double  Baluster ,  which 
consists  of  two  small  Balusters,  set  together  base  to  base, 
Fig.  142.  Vignola  also  used  a  high  block  under  the  Plinth. 
Balusters  are  often  made  square  in  section,  like  piers,  instead 
of  round,  like  columns. 

Balusters  are  set  about  half  their  height  apart,  on  centers. 

A  Balustrade,  like  a  Parapet,  is  intended  to  lean  upon,  and 
should  not  be  more  than  about  3  or  4  feet  high.  While,  there¬ 
fore,  Columns  and  Entablatures  are  proportioned  to  the  size 
of  the  buildings  in  which  they  occur,  varying  in  height  from 
10  or  12  feet  to  50  or  60,  Balustrades,  like  steps,  are  propor¬ 
tioned  to  the  size  of  the  human  figure,  and  in  large  buildings 


§11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


91 


are  relatively  much  smaller  than  in  small  ones.  They  thus 
serve,  as  do  steps,  and  as  does  the  human  figure  when  intro¬ 
duced  into  a  drawing,  to  indicate  the  scale  of  a  building. 

But  in  very  large  buildings  balustrades  have  sometimes 
been  made  of  colossal  dimensions,  that  on  the  top  of  the  front 
of  St.  Peter’s,  for  example,  being  about  8  feet  high. 


ATTICS 

36.  When  a  Parapet  is  placed  on  top  of  an  Entablature 
it  is  called  an  Attic,  that  is  to  say,  an  “Athenian”  story, 


Fig.  143  Fig.  144 


Fig.  143.  Like  Pedestals,  Attics  vary  much  in  size  and  in 
architectural  treatment.  They  are  generally  made  about  a 


92 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


quarter  as  high  as  the  order  below,  and  should  not  be  more 
than  a  third,  and  they  should  have  a  high  Plinth,  or  even  a 
double  Plinth,  Fig.  144,  so  as  not  to  be  too  much  hidden  by 

the  projection  of  the  Cornices 
on  which  they  stand. 

The  place  of  an  Attic  is  often 
taken  by  Balustrades,  Fig.  145, 
which  also  should  have  high 
Plinths,  below  the  lower  rail. 


PEDIMENTS— PLATE  XVII 

37.  The  Gable  upon  a  Clas¬ 
sical  building  is  called  a  Pedi¬ 
ment,  Fig.  146.  It  consists  of 
a  triangular  piece  of  wall,  called 
the  Tympanum,  which  is  in  the 
same  plane  as  the  Frieze  below; 
of  a  Horizontal  Cornice,  which 
divides  the  Tympanum  from 
the  Frieze;  and  of  two  pieces 
of  inclined  cornice  that  sur¬ 
mount  the  Tympanum.  The 
inclined,  or  Raking ,  Cornice  is 
like  the  cornice  that  crowns  the 
wall  on  the  sides  of  the  building,  but  the  Cymatium  is  a 
little  wider.  The  Horizontal  Cornice  has  no  Cymatium,  and 
generally  terminates  in  a  Fillet,  called  the  Split  Fillet,  which 
divides  at  the  angle  where  the  two  Cornices  come  together. 

If  the  Cymatium  is  a  Cavetto,  the  under  side  of  the  Fillet 
beneath  it  is  beveled,  either  on  the  rake  or  along  the  wall;  il 
it  is  an  Ovolo,  the  same  thing  happens  to  the  Fillet  above  it, 
Fig.  147.  With  the  Cyma  Reversa  both  occur,  with  the 
Cyma  Recta,  neither,  the  fillets  having  no  soffit.  This  is 
one  of  the  reasons  for  employing  this  moulding  in  this  place. 

When  a  Cyma  Recta  is  used  in  the  Cymatium,  it  occurs  in 
four  different  forms,  Fig.  148;  viz.:  ( 1 )  the  profile  of  the  mould¬ 
ing  along  the  wall;  (2)  the  profile  of  the  raking  moulding; 


Fig.  145 


International  Textbook  Company ,  Copyright ,  1902,  by  William  R .  Ware 

Scranton ,  /te.  THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA  Copyright,  1904,  by  International  Textbook  Company 


PLATE  XVII 


PEDII 


COAFLSE  DOTTED  LINE  SHOWS 
R.ULE  OF'VICNOLA' 


V 


BR.OKETM  PEDIMENT 


§11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


93 


(3)  the  line  of  intersection  of  these  two  mouldings,  which 
lies  in  a  vertical  plane,  set  at  45  degrees;  (4)  the  line  of 
intersection  of  the  two  raking  mouldings  at  the  top.  ( 1 ) , (2) , 
and  (4)  have  the  same  projection  but  different  heights; 
(1)  and  (3)  have  the  same  height  but  different  projections. 

According  to  Vignola,  the  obtuse  angle  at  the  top  of  the 


Pediment  is  included  within  an  arc  of  90  degrees;  it  accord¬ 
ingly  gives  a  slope  of  22i  degrees.  This  is  a  good  rule  for 
most  cases;  but  if  a  building  is  high  and  narrow,  the  slope 
needs  to  be  steeper,  and  if  it  is  low  and  wide,  flatter.  Inas¬ 
much,  however,  as,  for  a  building  of  a  given  width,  the 
higher  it  is,  the  larger  is  the  scale  of  the  Order  employed 


94 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


and  of  all  the  details  of  the  Order,  it  follows  that,  for  a  given 
width  of  front,  the  larger  the  mouldings  are,  the  steeper 
must  be  the  slope. 

Upon  this  is  founded  the  following  rule  for  the  slope  of 
Pediments,  devised  by  Stanislas  L’Eveille,  Fig.  149:  Taking 
the  upper  line  of  the  Horizontal  Cornice  as  one  side,  con¬ 
struct  below  it  an  equilateral  triangle,  and  taking  the  vertex 
of  this  triangle  as  a  center,  and  its  sides  as  a  radius,  describe 
an  arc  of  60  degrees.  Taking,  then,  the  summit  of  this  arc 


as  a  center,  describe  a  circle,  the  radius  of  which  is  equal  to 
the  width  of  the  horizontal  cornice.  Lines  drawn  from  the 
extremities  of  the  Corona  tangent  to  this  circle  will  give 
the  upper  line  of  the  Raking  Corona.  It  is  obvious  that  the 
larger  the  cornice,  relatively  to  the  length  of  the  front, 
the  steeper  will  be  the  slope.  It  is  also  plain  that  this  rule 
gives  steeper  Pediments  for  the  Corinthian  and  Ionic  Orders 
than  for  the  Doric  and  Tuscan,  and  for  the  Roman  Orders 
than  for  the  Greek,  the  cornices  being  wider. 


§11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


95 


Fig.  152 


96 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


11 


Circular,  or  Curved ,  Pediments  have  a  sweep  of  90  degrees, 
Fig.  150,  starting  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees. 

When  pediments  are  used  merely  for  ornament  the  upper 
part  is  sometimes  omitted,  giving  a  Broken  Pediment ,  Fig.  152. 

If  the  moulding  that  crowns  the  Corona  is  omitted,  the 
faces  of  the  three  Coronas  are  continuous,  Fig.  151.  This 
was  exemplified  in  antiquity  by  the  recently  discovered 
Treasury  of  the  Cnidians  at  Delphi. 


INTERCOLUMNIATION,  OR  THE  SPACING  OF 
COLUMNS— PRATE  XVIII 

38.  The  space  between  the  two  columns,  measured  just 
above  their  bases,  is  called  an  Intercolumniatiou.  It  is 
one  Diameter  less  than  their  distance  apart  on  centers,  or 
on  edges. 

Columns  are  said  to  be  Coupled ,  or  to  have  a  Pycnostyle, 
Systyle,  Diastyle ,  or  Areostyle  Intercolumniation  ^  according  as 
they  are  set  close  together,  or  are  one,  two,  three,  or  four 
Diameters  apart,  as  nearly  as  may  be;  i.  e.,  about  one,  two, 
three,  four,  or  five  Diameters  on  centers.  The  Systle  and 
Diastyle  are  the  most  usual,  with  an  Intercolumniation  of 
two  or  three  Diameters.  But  Coupled  Columns  cannot  be 
nearer  than  one  and  one-third  Diameters,  on  centers,  instead 
of  one  Diameter,  on  account  of  the  projection  of  their  bases, 
and  in  the  Ionic,  Corinthian,  and  Composite  Orders,  not 
nearer  than  one  and  one-half  Diameters,  on  account  of  the 
projection  of  their  Capitals.  The  Intercolumniation  of 
Coupled  Columns  is  accordingly  one-third  or  one-half  of  a 
Diameter,  or  even  a  little  more,  to  prevent  the  Bases  or  Caps 
from  actually  touching. 

So  also  the  Pycnostyle  Intercolumniation  is  made  one  and 
one-fourth  Diameters,  instead  of  one  Diameter  (i.  e.,  two  and 
one-fourth  Diameters  o.  c.,  instead  of  two),  to  avoid  crowd¬ 
ing.  I  he  ancients  thought  that  even  the  Systyle  columns, 
with  an  Intercolumniation  of  two  Diameters,  came  too  near 
together,  and  preferred  what  they  called  the  Eustyle  Inter- 
colummation,  of  two  and  one-half  Diameters  (or  three  and 


THE  AMERICA1S 


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Copyright ,  1902,  by  William  R.  Ware 
Copyright,  1904,  by  International  Textbook  Company 


PLATE  > 


DIAMETER,  DIMINISHED 
IN  EACH  ORDER. 


SECTION  SHOWING  AXIS 
SET  BACK  IN  EACH  STORY 


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— 

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NOTR1CLYPHIC 

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I-TR1CLYPHIC 

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. -  - II 

— - ■ — 1 

TRATR.ICLYPHIC 

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.  . lii 

1 

— - 

I 

International  Textbook  Company , 
Scranton.  Pa. 


18538 


DIAMETER.  THE  SAME 
IN  EACH  ORDER. 


§11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


97 


one-half  Diameters  o.  c.  in  place  of  three  Diameters).  But 
the  moderns  prefer  to  make  the  Eustyle  Intercolumniation 
two  and  one-third  Diameters  (setting  the  columns  three  and 
one-third  Diameters  o.  c.),  as  this  brings  every  Column  in 
Ionic  and  Corinthian  colonnades  exactly  under  a  Dentil,  and 
every  alternate  one  just  under  a  Modillion,  the  Dentils  being 


Fig.  153 


one-sixth  of  a  Diameter  o.  c.  and  the  Modillions  two-thirds 
of  a  Diameter. 

The  wider  Intercolumniations  are  preferable,  obviously, 
when  the  columns  are  small,  since  otherwise  it  might  be 
difficult  to  get  between  them,  and  the  Systyle,  or  even  the 
Pycnostyle,  when  the  columns  are  very  large,  since  otherwise 


98 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


it  might  be  difficult  to  find  stone  architraves  long  enough  to 
span  the  interval.  But  the  ancients  used  Tuscan  Columns 
chiefly  with  wooden  architraves,  setting  them  as  much  as 
seven  Diameters  apart,  which  is  called  Tuscan  Intercolumnia¬ 
tion ,  and  which  makes  the  space  between  the  columns  about 
square.  In  modern  times,  also,  an  arrangement  of  coupled 
columns  has  been  employed,  called  Areosy style,  the  columns 
being  set  half  a  Diameter  apart,  and  the  space  between  the 
pairs  of  columns  made  three  and  one-half  Diameters.  This 
is  greater  than  the  Diastyle  Intercolumniation  and  less  than 
the  Areostyle  by  half  a  Diameter.  From  the  axis  of  one 
pair  of  columns  to  that  of  the  next  pair  the  distance  is  six 
Diameters.  If  in  a  Systyle  Colonnade,  with  the  columns 
three  Diameters  on  centers,  the  alternate  columns  are  moved 
along  till  they  nearly  touch  the  intervening  ones,  the  result  is 
an  Areosystyle  Colonnade.  This  was  first  used  by  Perrault 
in  the  Eastern  Colonnade  of  the  Louvre,  Fig.  153. 

In  actual  practice  these  rules  for  Intercolumniation  are  sel¬ 
dom  exactly  followed. 


DORIC  INTERCOLUMNIATIONS 

31).  In  the  Doric  Order,  since  the  Columns  come  exactly 
under  the  Triglyphs  and  the  Triglyphs  are  one  and  one-fourth 
Diameters  o.  c.,  as  on  edges  (the  width  of  the  Triglyph 
being  one-half  of  a  Diameter  and  that  of  the  Metopes  three- 
fourths  of  a  Diameter),  the  distance  of  the  Columns  on 
centers  must  needs  be  a  multiple  of  one  and  one-fourth 
Diameters. 

This  makes  the  coupling  of  Doric  Columns  difficult,  since, 
even  if  the  Bases  touch,  the  distance  between  axes  is  still 
one  and  one-third  Diameters,  which  is  more  than  that  of  the 
Triglyphs  by  one-twelfth  of  a  Diameter.  This  slight  dis¬ 
crepancy  can,  however,  be  got  over  by  making  each  Base  a 
trifle  narrower,  or  the  Triglyphs  and  Metopes  a  trifle  wider, 
or  by  putting  the  Columns  not  exactly  under  the  Triglyphs, 
or  by  employing  all  these  devices  at  once. 

If  the  Columns  are  set  under  alternate  Triglyphs  so  that 
there  is  one  Triglyph  over  the  intervening  space,  their 


§11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


99 


distance  apart  o.  c.  is  two  and  one-half  Diameters.  The 
Intercolumniation  is  then  one  and  one-half  Diameters,  and 
is  said  to  be  Monotriglyph.  This  is  the  most  common 
arrangement.  But  if  the  scale  is  small,  it  is  usual,  at  least 
at  the  principal  entrance  of  a  building,  to  have  two  Triglyphs 
over  the  opening,  the  Columns  being  three  and  three-fourths 
Diameters  on  centers.  The  Intercolumniation  is  then  two 
and  three-fourths  Diameters,  and  is  called  Ditriglyph.  Still 
wider  spacing  is  employed  when  the  Architraves  are  of  wood. 

When  two,  four,  six,  eight,  ten,  or  twelve  Columns  are 
used  in  a  Colonnade  or  Portico,  it  is  said  to  be  Distyle , 
Tetrastyle ,  Hexastyle,  Octastyle ,  Dccastyle,  or  Dodecastyle, 
according  to  the  Greek  numerals.  Examples  are  found  at 
Argos,  Assos,  Thoricus,  and  Paestum  of  fagades  with  an  odd 
number  of  columns,  three,  five,  seven,  and  nine,  a  column 
instead  of  an  intercolumniation  coming  on  the  axis,  giving 
tristyle ,  pentastyle,  heptastyle ,  and  enneastyle  porticos.  But  in 
all  these  cases  the  entrances  were  apparently  on  the  sides  of 
the  buildings,  where  there  was  an  even  number  of  columns. 


SUPERPOSITION— PLATE  XVIII 

40.  Superposition  is  the  placing  of  one  Order  above 
another,  as  in  the  Roman  Amphitheaters  and  in  many 
modern  buildings  of  several  stories.  The  more  solid  forms 
of  the  Tuscan  and  Doric  are  naturally  placed  below,  and  the 
Ionic  and  Corinthian  above.  The  Composite  is  sometimes 
placed  below  the  Corinthian,  as  being  more  vigorous.  But 
in  high  buildings  it  is  generally  placed  on  the  top  story,  its 
large  details  being  better  seen  at  a  distance  than  are  those 
of  the  more  delicate  Order. 

Even  when  the  same  Order  is  employed  in  the  different 
stories  it  is  advisable  to  have  the  upper  Columns  of  smaller 
diameter  than  those  below,  and  all  the  dimensions  dimin¬ 
ished  accordingly,  for  the  sake  of  lightness.  But  it  is  still 
more  so  when  different  Orders  are  superposed,  for  otherwise 
the  Doric  and  Corinthian  stories  would  overpower  the  Tuscan 
and  Ionic  ones  beneath.  It  is  usual,  accordingly,  to  make 


Fig.  154 


Fig. 155 


Fig.  156 


11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


101 


the  lower  diameter  of  each  Shaft  equal  to  the  upper  diameter 
of  the  Shaft  below  it,  as  if  they  were  all  cut  from  a  single 
piece  of  tapering  stone.  This  makes  the  scale  employed  in 
the  second  story  five-sixths  of  that  used  in  the  first;  in  the 
third,  twenty-five  thirty-sixths,  or  about  two-thirds;  in  the 
fourth,  about  three-fifths,  and  in  the  fifth  about  one-half,  if 
the  Five  Orders  are  employed  in  regular  sequence;  this 
makes  the  relative  height  of  the  Orders  in  the  successive 
stories  to  be  as  7,  6f,  6i,  5f,  and  5,  very  nearly.  The  actual 
height  of  the  stories  themselves  may  be  somewhat  modified 
by  the  use  of  plinths  and  pedestals. 


From  the  Pantheon. Rome 
Fig.  157 


This  system  of  Superposition  makes  the  distance  apart  of 
the  Columns  in  each  story,  when  expressed  in  terms  of  their 
own  Diameter,  six-fifths  of  that  in  the  story  below.  A 
Eustyle  Intercolumniation  in  one  story  thus  exactly  produces 
a  Diastyle  Intercolumniation  in  the  story  above,  and  a 
Doric  Monotriglyph  Intercolumniation,  a  Systyle. 

(t  X  3i  =  4;  f  X  21  =  3) 

Coupled  Columns  set  one  and  one-third  Diameters  apart, 
on  centers,  in  one  story,  are,  in  the  story  above,  one  and 
three-fifths  Diameters  o.  c.,  and  in  the  third  story  nearly  two 
Diameters  o.  c.  This  does  very  well  for  a  sequence  of  Doric, 
Ionic,  and  Corinthian,  Fig.  154.  But  if  the  lower  Columns 


102 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


11 


are  Ionic  or  Corinthian  those  above  had  better  be  set  nearer 
together,  the  axis  of  the  Intercolumniation  only  being  pre¬ 
served,  Fig.  155. 

With  this  exception,  Superposed  Columns  are  set  so  that 
their  axes  are  in  the  same  vertical  line,  when  seen  in  eleva¬ 
tion.  But  in  profile,  as  seen  in  section,  the  upper  ones 
are  set  back,  the  wall  against  which  they  stand  generally 
growing  thinner  as  it  goes  up,  Fig.  156.  Since  the  Columns 
themselves  also  grow  smaller,  it  would  not  do  to  leave  too 
much  space  behind  them.  The  slightly  pyramidal  effect 
that  this  gives  to  a  building  of  several  stories  is  of  value, 
preventing  it  from  looking  top-heavy  and  high-shouldered. 


OTHER  CORNICES  AND  STRING-COURSES 

41.  The  Five  Orders  worked  out  by  Vignola  are  gen¬ 
erally  accepted  as  a  standard,  though  they  are  seldom 
exactly  followed  in  practice,  modern  as  well  as  ancient 


From  the  Fourth  Order  of  the  Coliseum 
Fig.  158 


examples  exhibiting  a  great  variety  in  the  forms  and  pro¬ 
portions  of  the  parts.  But  familiarity  with  them  is  of  great 
service  in  designing,  since  they  can  safely  be  employed  on 
all  ordinary  occasions,  and  in  the  earlier  stages  of  architec¬ 
tural  composition.  Other  types  of  nearly  equal  merit  have 
been  published  by  Alberti,  Palladio,  Serlio,  Scamozzi,  Sir 


11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


103 


William  Chambers,  and  others,  and  a  great  variety  of  cor¬ 
nices,  both  with  and  without  friezes  and  architraves,  have 
been  employed  in  ancient  and  modern  times  to  crown  and 


From  the  Villa  Caprarela, 
by  Vignola 

Fig.  159 


protect  walls  that  were  not  decorated  with  columns  or 
pilasters. 

Many  of  these  show  Blocks  or  Modillions  without  any 
Dentil  Course  below,  as  on  Palladio’s  Composite  Cornice, 
and  in  many  of  them  the  Dentil  Course  is  plain,  forming 


From  I  be  Farnese  Palace 
j by  SanQallo 

Fig.  160  Fig.  161 


St  ring  Course  from  the  Strozzi  Palace 

Fig.  162 


what  is  called  an  Uncut  Dentil  Course,  Fig.  157.  In  others, 
the  brackets  that  support  the  Corona  are  brought  down  so 
as  to  occupy  the  Frieze,  Fig.  158.  The  most  important  of 


104 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


§11 


these  is  Vignola’s  so-called  Cantilever  Cornice  used  by  him 
at  Caprarola,  Fig.  159.  It  seems  to  have  been  suggested  by 
the  Mutules  and  Triglyphs  of  his  Mutulary  Doric. 

Cornices,  and  indeed  full  Entablatures,  are  often  used  as 
String-Courses  to  separate  stories,  as  in  the  Roman  Amphi¬ 
theaters.  But  it  is  customary  to  use,  instead,  a  lighter 


String-Course  from  the  Sacbetti  Palace 
byS  an  Qallo 

Fig.  164 


form,  of  small  projection,  somewhat  like  the  cap  of  a  pedes¬ 
tal,  in  which  the  Cymatium  and  Bed  Mould  are  often  omitted, 
and  the  Corona  itself  sometimes  diminished  to  a  mere 
fillet,  Figs.  160  to  162. 


COLOR  HARMONY 


INTRODUCTION. 

1.  Nature  of  Color. — Before  taking  up  the  subject  of 
color  harmony,  it  is  necessary  for  the  student  to  know  some¬ 
thing  of  the  nature  of  color  in  its  abstract  sense.  That  is  to 
say,  he  must  learn,  first,  to  consider  color  as  a  natural  sen¬ 
sation  in  the  same  way  that  he  comprehends  the  sensation 
of  heat  and  of  cold.  When  we  consider  that  we  have  five 
senses — the  senses  of  sight,  of  hearing,  of  touch  or  feeling, 
of  taste,  and  of  smell — we  must  understand  that  there  is  no 
sensation  outside  of  our  individual  selves.  To  make  this 
clearer,  let  us  take  an  example.  We  all  know  that  the  sense 
of  hearing,  or  the  sensation  of  sound,  is  due  to  the  vibration 
of  the  drum  of  the  ear  and  that  where  there  is  no  ear 
present  to  receive  these  vibrations  that  are  transmitted 
through  the  air  there  is  no  existing  sound. 

In  a  similar  manner,  we  can  study  the  sensation  of  light. 
The  effect  of  light  is  produced  by  the  vibration  of  what  are 
usually  termed  li^lit  waves,  and  these  vibrations  affect  the 
retina  of  the  eye  to  produce  the  sensation  of  light  somewhat 
after  the  manner  that  the  vibrations  of  the  air  affect  the 
drum  of  the  ear  and  produce  the  sensation  of  sound. 

2.  Standard  of  Light.— The  scientific  theory  of  light 
does  not  concern  us  in  this  subject  of  color  harmony,  except 
so  far  as  an  analysis  of  light  gives  us  the  phenomena  of 
color.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  we  must  have  a 

For  notice  of  copy r igh t ,  see  Page  immediately  following  the  title  Page 

§12 


2 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


§  12 


standard  of  some  kind  to  go  by  at  all  times,  and  if  we  take 
dear  sunlight  as  a  standard  and  call  that  white  light,  we 
have  a  standard  with  which  we  can  make  comparisons. 

3.  Shadow. — Shadow  is  produced  by  varying  the  degree 
of  light.  If  an  object  is  equally  illuminated  on  all  sides  it 
possesses  no  shadow,  but  where  the  light  falls  upon  it  from 
one  direction  some  parts  of  it  are  illuminated  more  than 
others  and  the  object,  if  opaque,  interferes  with  the  passage 
of  light  and  casts  a  shadow.  Shadows  vary  in  degree  from 
a  slight  diminution  of  the  power  of  the  direct  light  to  utter 
darkness. 


4.  Relation  of  Light  and  Shadow. — The  relation  of 
light  and  shadow  to  color  is  a  very  important  one,  and  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  color  is  a  sensation  produced  by 
certain  conditions  of  light  and  outside  of  those  conditions 
does  not  exist  at  all.  To  make  this  clearer,  let  us  assume 
that  we  have  a  red  card  hanging  in  a  room.  Now,  as  long  as 
that  room  is  illuminated,  no  matter  in  how  slight  a  degree, 
the  card  remains  red,  but  as  soon  as  the  room  is  in  utter 
darkness  the  card  is  no  longer  red  because  the  sensation  of 
the  red  color  is  produced  by  the  reflection  of  the  light  from 
it,  and  if  there  is  no  light  to  reflect,  there  is  no  color  there. 

5.  Analysis  of  White  Light. — An  analysis  of  white 
light  will  show  that  it  is  composed  of  a  combination  of 
seven  separate  colors,  violet,  indigo,  blue,  green,  yellow, 
orange,  and  red.  These  colors  vary  in  quantity  to  form  white 
light,  and  colored  lights  can  be  mixed  in  such  proportions 
that  they  will  produce  white  light.  An  illustration  of  the 
analysis  and  decomposition  of  light  may  be  seen  in  the  rain¬ 
bow,  where  the  sunlight  passing  through  drops  of  rain  is 
refracted  and  broken  up  into  its  several  colors.  A  more 
satisfactory  decomposition  of  light  can  be  obtained  by  means 
of  a  glass  prism,  when  the  colors  appear  much  clearer. 

G.  Artificial  Color. — The  only  method  that  we  have 
of  producing  the  sensation  of  color  with  any  degree  of 


12 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


3 


permanency  is  by  means  of  pigments  or  dyes.  If  we  stain  a 
piece  of  paper  or  fabric  with  a  certain  dye,  or  if  we  paint  on 
its  surface  with  a  pigment,  we  produce  on  that  paper  the 
sensation  of  a  given  color.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
pigment  or  dye  has  the  mechanical  or  chemical  quality  of 
absorbing  all  the  color  rays  that  compose  the  white  light 
except  the  particular  color  that  it  reflects  back  to  the  eye, 
and  thus  produces  that  sensation.  If  we  paint  on  the  paper 
with  red  and  set  it  in  the  light,  we  know  that  the  pigment  is 
absorbing  the  violet,  indigo,  blue,  green,  yellow,  and  orange 
rays  and  is  reflecting  back  to  the  eye  only  the  red,  hence,  the 
sensation  of  red. 


PRIMARY  COLORS. 

1.  The  Spectrum.  -The  seven  colors  mentioned  above 
are  called  the  spectrum,  which  varies  with  different  kinds 
of  light,  such  as  sunlight,  gaslight,  lamplight,  etc.  That  is 
to  say,  that  the  seven  colors  composing  them  vary  in  pro¬ 
portion,  but  are  constant  for  the  same  kind  of  light.  It  is 
found  that  green,  violet,  and  orange  can  be  produced  by  the 
mixture  of  other  colors,  and  if  we  subtract  these  from  our 
spectrum,  as  well  as  the  indigo  of  which  we  will  learn  more 
later  on,  we  will  reduce  our  colors  to  three — red,  yellow, 
and  blue.  These  three  colors  are  termed  the  primary 
colors,  inasmuch  as  they  cannot  be  divided  into  any  other 
colors  and  exist  by  themselves  as  a  standard  from  which  all 
other  colors  and  shades  can  be  theoretically  made.  Red 
and  yellow  make  orange,  blue  and  yellow  make  green,  red 
and  blue  make  violet. 

S.  Formation  of  Colors  of  Spectrum. — Now,  it  may 
be  assumed  that  when  we  paint  on  a  card  or  surface  with 
green  paint,  that  card  absorbs  all  the  colors  of  the  spectrum, 
except  the  yellow  and  the  blue  and  these  it  reflects  to  the 
eye,  producing  the  sensation  of  green.  The  proportion  of 
each  of  these  colors,  yellow  and  blue,  that  is  reflected  will 
determine  the  quality  of  the  green  that  appears  on  the  sur¬ 
face.  For  practical  purposes  it  can  be  assumed  that  the 


4 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


§  12 


colors  of  the  spectrum  are  really  red,  yellow,  and  blue,  and 
that  the  colors  orange,  green,  and  violet  consist  of  an  admix¬ 
ture  of  the  adjacent  colors,  inasmuch  as  the  orange  occurs 
between  the  red  and  yellow  and  the  green  between  the 
yellow  and  blue.  Therefore,  we  will  confine  our  studies  to 
these  three  colors  for  the  present. 

i).  The  ancients  seemed  to  possess  a  very  practical  idea 
of  these  colors  and  their  harmony  with  one  another,  inas¬ 
much  as  all  the  earliest,  and  from  an  artistic  standpoint, 
highest  quality,  of  ornament  and  decoration  were  executed 
in  the  three  primary  colors,  and  the  secondary,  or  mixed,  colors 
were  not  introduced  until  the  art  of  the  various  periods  began 
to  decline. 


SECONDARY  COLORS. 

1  O.  The  secondary  colors  are  green,  orange,  and  violet 
and  they  vary  in  shade  or  tint  according  to  the  proportion 
of  the  admixture  of  the  two  colors  composing  them,  whereas 
the  primary  colors  are  standard  and  do  not  vary.  A  mix¬ 
ture  of  two  secondary'  colors  gives  us  what  we  term  a 
tertiary  color,  or  one  composed  of  four  primaries.  This 
may  seem  somewhat  obscure  at  first,  inasmuch  as  we  have 
but  three  primaries,  but  in  a  tertiary  color  some  one  of  the 
primaries  must  exist  twice.  If  we  mix  green  and  orange 
we  will  get  a  brown  tint  in  which  there  is  nearly  twice  as 
much  yellow  as  there  is  of  either  of  the  other  primaries,  and 
while  it  contains  nothing  but  the  three  primary  colors  we  call 
it  a  tertiary  color  because  it  is  in  reality  composed  of  four 
ingredients. 


POSITION  OF  COLORS  IN  CHROMATIC  SCALE. 

11.  Blue  and  "Yellow. — Of  the  three  primary  colors 
blue  possesses  that  quality  that  is  technically  known  as 
coldness  in  color,  and  if  we  adopt  a  chromatic  scale,  that 
is,  a  color  scale,  wherein  the  various  colors  are  related  to  one 
another  in  the  same  manner  that  the  various  degrees  of 
light  and  shade  are  related  to  one  another  from  most 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


5 


§  12 

brilliant  sunlight  io  absolute  darkness,  we  will  find  that  blue 
m  the  color  scale  will  be  nearest  black  or  darkness  That  is 
to  say,  that  blue  is  the  least  obtrusive  of  all  the  colors,  and 
when  used  in  a  design  or  decoration  is  the  least  conspicuous. 
Blue  bears  exactly  the  same  relation  to  absolute  darkness 
or  black  that  yellow  does  to  brilliant  light  or  white.  The 
palest  shade  of  yellow  is  nearly  white  ;  the  darkest  shade  of 
blue  (indigo)  is  nearly  black. 

12.  Red. — Yellow  and  blue,  then,  will  occupy  the 
extreme  ends  of  our  color  scale,  and  all  other  colors  will 
be  arranged  between  them  in  the  order  of  their  brilliancy 
or  obtrusiveness.  Red,  therefore,  will  stand  between  these 
two  extremities;  in  other  words,  red  is  intermediate  between 
black  and  white  or  between  light  and  shade.  Hence,  red 
has  a  double  power  in  its  mixtures,  for  by  union  or  mixture 
with  yellow  it  becomes  a  warm  and  conspicuous  color,  but 
combined  with  blue  it  recedes  and  becomes  colder  and  retir¬ 
ing.  It  is  preeminent  with  all  colors,  forming  with  yellow 
the  secondary  color  orange  and  its  close  relatives  scarlet, 
etc.,  and  with  blue  the  secondary  purple  with  its  allies 
violet,  crimson,  etc.  It  gives  warmth  to  all  colors  but  par¬ 
ticularly  to  those  that  already  possess  a  proportion  of  yellow 
to  some  degree. 

1.3.  Orange. — Of  the  secondary  colors  the  first  in  rela¬ 
tion  to  light  and  warmth  is  orange.  Such  a  compound  of 
red  and  j’ellow  as  will,  in  an  equal  quantity  of  either  surface 
or  intensity,  neutralize  a  perfect  blue  is  termed  a  perfect 
orange.  By  neutralize  is  meant  to  offset  completely  in 
intensity  or  prominence.  The  proportions  of  such  a  com¬ 
pound  are  very  important  and  consist  of  five  parts  of  perfect 
red  and  three  parts  of  perfect  yellow.  An  increase  of  red 
causes  the  color  to  approach  scarlet;  an  increase  of  yellow 
causes  it  to  approach  a  lemon  yellow.  A  mixture  of  orange 
with  green  forms  the  tertiary  color  called  citrine,  and  with 
purple  it  produces  russet.  By  degrading  its  brilliancy  with 
black  it  forms  what  are  termed  semineutral  colors,  which 
we  will  discuss  hereafter. 


6 


COLOR  HARMONY 


§  12 


14.  Green. — Green  in  the  general  scale  of  colors,  so  far 
as  relation  of  light  and  shade  are  concerned,  occupies  the 
middle  position,  but  in  the  secondary  colors  it  is  second.  It 
is  composed  of  the  extreme  primaries  yellow  and  blue.  A 
pcrject  green  consists  of  three  parts  of  yellow  and  eight 
parts  of  blue  in  equal  intensities  and  this  perfect  green  will 
neutralize  a  perfect  red  in  the  proportion  of  11  :  5.  Of  all 
compound  colors  green  is  the  most  effective,  distinct,  and 
striking,  and  contrasts  beautifully  with  the  other  primaries 
and  secondaries  and  is  the  most  abundant  color  found  in 
nature.  Mixed  with  orange  it  produces  the  tertiary  citrine, 
and  mixed  with  purple  it  produces  the  other  extreme  of 
tertiary,  olive. 


15.  Purple.  — Purple,  the  third  and  last  of  the  secondary 
colors,  is  composed  of  five  parts  of  red  and  eight  parts  of 
blue.  Such  a  purple  will  neutralize  a  perfect  yellow  in  the 
proportion  of  13  :  3.  As  said  before,  with  green  it  produces 
olive,  and  with  the  other  tertiary,  orange,  produces  russet. 
It  is  the  coldest  of  the  secondary  colors  and  nearest  black  in 
respect  to  light  and  shade.  It  is  a  receding  color  and  pos 
sesses  many  of  the  qualities  of  blue  in  this  respect.  Next 
to  green,  purple  is  the  most  pleasing  of  the  contrasting 
colors.  It  has  long  been  emblematic  of  royalty,  probably 
on  account  of  its  rareness  in  a  pure  state  in  nature.  Purple 
when  inclined  to  red  takes  the  name  of  crimson,  and  falling 
back  toward  blue  becomes  violet. 


1(>.  These  six  colors  constitute  the  entire  gamut  or 
chromatic  scale  with  which  all  tints  and  shades  are  repre¬ 
sented.  As  said  before,  mixed  with  black  they  form  semi- 
neutial  tints.  If  we  consider  a  color  scale  beginning  with 
the  palest  yellow  and  ending-  in  the  darkest  blue,  we  have 
the  extremes  of  light  and  shade  producible  by  pure  color. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  we  have  a  parallel  scale  beginning 
with  the  purest  white  and  ending  in  the  deepest  black,  we 
have  the  extremes  of  light  and  shade  producible  with  all  the 
colors,  or  in  other  words,  producible  with  white  light. 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


7 


12 


NEUTRAL  TINTS. 

Formation.  —  In  nature  we  have  several  neutral 
tints  that  are  produced  by  reducing  the  intensity  of  light  on 
the  color.  It  may  be  that  the  object  that  presents  a  neutral 
tint  to  the  eye  does  so  by  absorbing  the  seven  colors  of  the 
spectrum  to  a  certain  extent  and  reflecting  only  a  small  por¬ 
tion  of  the  ingredients  necessary  to  give  it  its  tint.  This 
has  the  same  effect  on  the  eye  as  though  the  object  were  in 
shadow.  If  we  take  a  tree  trunk  the  bark  of  which  is 
brown,  we  can  assume  that  only  a  portion  of  the  red,  ye  1- 
low,  and  blue  constituting  that  color  is  reflected,  and  that  it 
is  in  reality  the  same  as  the  tertiary  color  russet  in  deep 
shadow. 


18.  Use  of  Black.  —  As  black  is  our  means  of  producing 
the  effect  of  shadow,  we  can  produce  the  semineutral  colors 
by  mixing  black  with  the  secondary  and  tertiary  colors.  By 
doing  this,  we  simply  are  mixing  shade  with  them  and  in 
this  way  get  a  new  series  in  the  scale  of  color  compounds, 
having  black  for  its  basis.  These  same  neutral  tints  are 
termed  brown,  maroon,  and  gray.  They  are  far  inferior  in 
point  of  color  to  any  of  the  primaries  or  their  direct  combi¬ 
nations,  but  they  are  of  the  greatest  value  inasmuch  as  they 
exist  in  nature  in  so  large  a  proportion  that  they  serve  as  a 
background  against  which  the  more  brilliant  colors  contrast. 


PRODUCING  HARMONY. 

19.  Necessary  Proportions  of  Colors. — In  decorative 
effects  all  colors  must  be  mixed  so  as  to  neutralize  one 
another,  and  reducing  all  colors  to  the  perfect  primaries,  we 
find  that  where  these  three  colors  exist  they  should  be  in  the 
proportion  of  three  parts  of  yellow,  five  parts  of  red,  and 
eight  parts  of  blue.  It  will  be  remembered  that  yellow  is 
the  warmest  of  the  colors  and  blue  the  coldest  and  that  red 
lies  intermediate  between  them.  It  will  be  evident  from 
the  above  proportion,  too,  that  on  a  given  surface  it  requires 


8 


COLOR  HARMONY 


12 

as  much  blue  as  there  is  red  and  yellow  combined  to  produce 
harmony. 

20.  Importance  of  Proper  Proportions. — These  fig¬ 
ures  are  of  vast  importance  in  color  harmony,  although  in 
general  practice  it  is  not  possible  to  mix  them  in  these  abso¬ 
lute  proportions,  but  it  is  possible  to  train  the  eye  so  as  to 
appreciate  proportions  when  the  color  appears  on  a  surface. 
If  we  have  a  figure  or  a  decoration  on  which  it  is  desired  to 
express  three  colors,  it  can  be  divided  according  to  the  area 
of  its  several  parts  and  the  three  colors  laid  in  the  propor¬ 
tion  of  three  parts  of  yellow,  five  parts  of  red,  and  eight 
parts  of  blue,  thus  producing  harmony.  Or,  if  there  are  but 
two  colors,  such  as  red  and  green,  the  green  should  be  such 
a  mixture  of  blue  and  yellow  as  will  give  us  the  necessary 
contrasting  color  with  red.  The  aim  should  be  at  all  times 
to  keep  this  mathematical  proportion  and  to  vary  the  tint  or 
intensity  of  one  of  the  colors  in  order  that  it  will  harmonize 
with  the  other  two. 

21.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  Moors  in  decorating 
their  walls  with  the  elaborate  geometrical  color  devices  char¬ 
acteristic  of  their  art  practiced  this  color  harmony  with  the 
greatest  of  skill.  They  reduced  the  quantity  and  intensity 
of  red  in  their  decorations,  because  yellow  was  replaced  by 
gold  leaf  and  the  gold  leaf  had  a  reddish  tinge  In  the  same 
way,  the  modern  artist,  where  he  uses  a  combination  of  a 
primary  and  a  secondary7  color  or  of  two  secondary  colors, 
reduces  those  colors  as  nearly  as  possible  so  that  in  the 
entire  general  surface  of  the  decoration  there  will  be  the 
proper  relation  of  3,  5,  and  8  in  the  yellow,  red,  and  blue. 
There  are  many  ways  of  accomplishing  this,  and  it  depends 
in  each  case  on  the  design  to  be  executed  as  to  how  it  can 
be  best  carried  out. 

22.  The  student  first  studying  the  subject  of  design 
practices  “spotting”  or  “space  relation  ”  by  dividing  up 
surfaces  in  order  that  he  may  become  skilled  in  judging  the 
amount  of  light  and  shade  that  is  required  to  produce  the 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


9 


most  pleasing  effect.  \\  hen  he  advances  to  color  work 
he  must  bear  in  mind  the  spotting,  inasmuch  as  a  red 
figure  on  a  green  ground  has  the  effect  of  a  spot,  but  the 
shade  of  his  red  and  the  quality  of  his  green  must  also  be 
considered,  in  order  that  the  entire  surface  covered  will  be 
harmonious  in  the  admixture  of  his  color. 


MAKING  A  COLOR  CARD. 

23.  In  order  to  appreciate  this  proportion,  the  student 
should  draw  on  a  sheet  of  paper  a  number  of  small  squares, 
each  about  l  or  i  of  an  inch  on  the  sides,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1, 
and  then  paint  in  his  three  colors,  yellow,  red,  and  blue,  and 


± 

nr 

FlG-  1-  Fig.  2. 

streak  or  stripe  over  each  set  of  squares  so  that  the  relative 
proportion  of  3,  5,  and  8  of  each  color  is  maintained,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  2.  In  this  way  he  will  associate  in  his  mind 
the  relative  value  of  each  color  to  the  other. 

He  should  then  construct  three  squares  similar  to  Fig.  3  that 
bear  the  same  relations  to  one  another  that  the  three  lines 
do  in  Fig.  2.  This  can  be  done  approximately;  by  making 
the  middle  square  If  inches  on  each  side,  he  will  give  it 
an  area  of  very  nearly  3  square  inches.  The  next  square 
should  be  2 f  inches  on  each  side,  in  order  that  its  entire  area 
may  be  8  square  inches,  and  the  circumscribed  area  around 
the  center  square  should  be  5  square  inches.  The  extreme 
outside,  square  must  be  8  square  inches  larger  than  the  one 
within,  or  16  square  inches  in  all,  and  4  inches  on  each  side 


10 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


§  12 


will  fulfil  this  condition.  The  outside  square  being  painted 
blue,  the  middle  square  red,  and  the  inner  square  yel¬ 
low,  will  then  present  the  colors  in  their  relative  propor¬ 
tions.  Three  concentric 
circles  whose  diameters  are 
4i  inches,  3t2q  inches,  and 
2  inches  will  give  us  the 
same  proportions. 

24.  A  number  of  fig¬ 
ures  can  be  constructed  on 
this  basis,  where  the  colors 
interlock  more  so  as  to  dis¬ 
tribute  the  different  colors 
in  smaller  quantities  and 
at  the  same  time  preserve 
their  relative  proportions. 
For  instance,  let  us  assume 
that  we  have  a  wall  decoration  where  the  repeat  is  18  inches 
square,  and  the  ground  color  consists  of  a  perfect  red, 
while  the  figure  consists  of  a  vine  whose  color  is  formed 
by  a  mixture  of  three  parts  37ellow  and  eight  parts  blue. 
In  such  a  pattern  the  area  of  the  vine  should  be  not  less 
than  ft  of  the  entire  repeat  and  the  background  — so  that 
the  relation  will  be  11  to  5.  In  other  words,  the  entire  area 
of  the  repeat  being  324  square  inches,  the  vine  should  occupy 
a  little  more  than  220  square  inches  and  the  gi'ound  about 
100  square  inches.  Or  if  the  background  were  blue  and  the 
design  upon  it  were  executed  in  orange,  an  equality  of  area 
could  exist  between  the  figure  and  the  background  in  order 
to  preserve  the  relation  of  three  parts  yellow,  five  parts  red, 
and  eight  parts  blue  in  the  design.  Constant  practice  on 
figures  that  will  show  this  color  relation  is  of  the  greatest 
value  and  utmost  importance. 


Fig.  3. 


25.  Contrast  of  Colors. — After  painting  the  colors  in 
their  relative  values  several  times,  the  student  should  hold 
the  paper  at  a  distance  and  become  accustomed  to  all  the 


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served 


Fig.  ■ 


Fig.  9. 


tiPit 

tanjeitf 


Fig.  8. 


12 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


11 


colors  when  properly  blended,  and  then  he  should  make 
similar  attempts  at  coloring  by  contrasting  red  and  green, 
blue  and  orange,  yellow  and  purple,  etc.,  using  the  second¬ 
ary  colors  in  as  nearly  their  proper  mixtures  as  he  can 
make  them.  With  liquid  colors  it  is  a  difficult  thing  to 
exactly  mix  any  two  colors  in  any  exact  proportions,  but 
with  powdered  colors  a  given  quantity  of  each  can  easily  be 
measured  and  the  two  mixed  together  to  form  a  desired  tint. 
However,  this  is  not  necessary  in  practice,  as  the  trained 
eye  is  of  more  value  than  any  mechanical  arrangement. 


DRAWING  PLATE,  TITLE  :  HISTORIC  ORNAMENT. 

26.  With  this  understanding  of  the  relative  values  of 
colors,  we  again  take  up  the  subject  of  Historic  Ornament 
and  execute  Plate  1  with  these  ideas  in  mind.  There  is 
nothing  on  this  drawing  plate  with  which  the  student  is  not 
already  familiar,  each  of  the  figures  having  been  illustrated 
in  Historic  Ornament ,  and  being  reproduced  only  to  show 
the  effect  of  color  and  to  give  the  student  practice  in 
same. 

The  finished  drawing  plate  is  to  be  13  in.  x  1 7  in. ,  inside  the 
border  line,  the  same  as  the  previous  plates,  and  the  figures 


must  be  enlarged  to  give  that  proportion.  Figs.  1,  2,  3,  and  4 
are  each  4j-|  inches  in  length  and  2|  inches  in  width,  as 


12 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


§  12 


shown  in  Figs.  4,  5,  G,  and  7,  of  the  text.  Figs.  5,  6,  and  7, 
of  the  drawing  plate,  are  2T9g  inches  in  width  and  5}^  inches 


Fig.  5. 


Fig.  r. 


in  length.  Figs.  8  and  9  are  4||  inches  in  width  and  of  a 
height  corresponding  to  the  neighboring  figures,  as  shown. 


§  12  COLOR  HARMONY.  13 

The  location  and  proportion  of  the  individual  parts  are 
shown  in  Figs. 8, 9,  and  10,  of  the  text,  while  Figs.  4,  5,  6,  and  ?, 


Fig.  10. 


of  the  text,  are  the  outlines  of  Figs.  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  of  the 
drawing  plate. 


14 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


12 


27.  The  student  will  construct  these  figures  in  pencil 
without  any  further  directions,  and  Figs.  1,  2,  3,  and  4  may 
then  be  outlined,  in  waterproof  ink,  but  with  a  very  fine 
line,  as  shown  on  the  drawing  plate.  Figs.  5  and  7  should 
be  sketched  in  pencil,  but  not  outlined  in  ink.  Figs.  6  and  8 
should  be  carefully  drawn  in  pencil  and  inked  in,  but  Fig.  9 
should  not  be  inked  in,  except  around  the  gold  portion, 
until  all  the  color  work  is  finished.  All  inking  in  should  be 
done  with  the  T  square  and  ruling  pen,  where  possible,  and 
the  greatest  care  should  be  used  to  see  that  the  drawing 
is  as  perfect  as  possible  before  the  work  of  coloring  is 
commenced. 

28.  I  n  applying  color  to  this  plate,  the  student  should 
match  the  original  tint  as  closely  as  possible,  and  in  order 
to  do  this  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  color  to  dry  on  a 
sample  piece  of  paper,  which  he  can  lay  over  the  original 
and  determine  the  degree  or  intensity  of  his  shade. 

29.  The  background  of  Fig.  1  is  a  creamy  tint  produced 
by  a  very  thin  wash  of  yellow  orange — so  light,  in  fact,  is  this 
tint  that  the  other  colors  may  be  applied  on  top  of  it  with¬ 
out  its  materially  affecting  them.  The  reds  produced  in 
Figs.  1  and  2  are  formed  with  a  slight  addition  of  yellow  to 
the  pure  red  color.  The  tint  is  what  is  usually  termed  red 
orange  and  is  of  a  class  of  red  orange  bordering  on  red; 
that  is  to  say,  there  is  an  excessive  red  in  it,  making  it 
approach  the  scarlet  in  hue.  The  student  should  mix  his 
color  and  try  it  on  a  separate  piece  of  paper,  permitting  it 
to  dry,  and  then  compare  it  with  the  original  by  laying  his 
colored  paper  alongside  of  the  original  for  comparison.  The 
yellow  in  Fig.  1  is  pure  yellow  and  may  be  painted  directly, 
without  any  admixture,  care  being  taken  that  it  is  mixed 
in  good  body  so  as  not  to  appear  too  pale.  The  blue  in 
Figs.  1  and  2  is  a  greenish  blue  and  is  produced  by  mixing 
with  pure  blue  a  very  slight  suggestion  of  yellow,  and  apply¬ 
ing  the  color  in  a  thin  wash.  The  green  is  a  yellow  green 
produced  by  mixing  a  thin  wash  of  blue  with  a  rather  strong 


12 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


15 


wash  of  yellow.  The  central  portions  of  the  red  and  blue 
figures  in  Fig.  2,  being  shaded  slightly,  appear  darker  than 
the  body  of  the  figures,  and  this  shaded  effect  may  be  pro¬ 
duced  by  a  very  slight  wash  of  a  weak  solution  of  black. 

30.  The  principal  difficulty  in  Fig.  3  lies  in  its  geomet¬ 
rical  construction  rather  than  in  its  coloring.  This  con¬ 
struction,  however,  can  easily  be  worked  out  by  reference 
to  Fig.  6,  of  the  text.  The  red  in  Fig.  3  is  produced  by  the 
addition  of  a  trifle  more  yellow  than  was  used  in  Figs.  1  and  2, 
but  the  yellow  in  Fig.  3  is  a  pure  yellow,  and  the  black 
absolute  in  color,  which  makes  it  easily  applied. 

31.  In  drawing  Fig.  4,  the  blue  background  should  be 
painted  first  with  a  shade  of  blue  to  which  the  slightest  sug¬ 
gestion  of  yellow  has  been  added  to  give  it  a  greenish  tinge, 
but  the  addition  of  this  yellow  must  be  almost  imperceptible, 
producing  a  blue  precisely  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  2, 
but  darker  in  color.  Two  or  three  washes  of  the  blue  in  Fig.  2 
should  produce  a  blue  such  as  shown  in  Fig.  4 — one  being 
a  light,  and  the  other  a  dark  tint  of  the  same  color.  The 
red  is  the  same  as  that  in  Fig.  3.  The  green  of  Fig.  4  is 
a  light  yellow  green  produced  by  adding,  gradually,  small 
quantities  of  blue  to  a  rather  pale  wash  of  yellow.  The  light 
tint  forming  the  background  at  the  bottom  of  Fig.  4  is  a 
light  orange  in  a  very  pale  wash,  produced  by  adding  the 
slightest  suggestion  of 'red  to  a  thin  wash  of  yellow. 

After  these  colors  are  all  washed  on,  the  student  should 
apply  his  gold  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  his  color, 
being  careful  to  get  it  thick  enough  to  cover  the  white  back¬ 
ground  and  appear  opaque.  The  outlines  of  certain  figures 
may  then  be  emphasized  by  means  of  a  pen  charged  with 
black  ink,  and  the  black  portions  of  the  design  inked  in  with 
waterproof  ink,  while  the  white  spots  in  the  various  portions 
may  be  produced  by  means  of  Chinese  white. 

32.  In  drawing  Fig.  5,  it  will  be  found  best  to  wash  in 
the  entire  rectangle  with  the  orange  background  color,  as 
shown,  and  then  to  lay  the  other  colors  over  it.  This 


16 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


§1^ 


background  is  composed  of  the  same  ingredients  as  the  lower 
part  of  Fig.  4,  but  is  slightly  darker.  In  any  case,  do  not 
get  it  any  darker  than  is  shown  on  the  original  drawing 
plate,  as  it  will  be  less  of  an  error  to  make  it  lighter  than  to 
make  it  darker.  The  red  in  the  strokes  of  the  Greek  orna¬ 
ment  is  very  nearly  a  pure  red,  but  it  has  a  slight  addition 
of  yellow,  bringing  it  toward  the  scarlet,  but  the  student 
should  bear  in  mind  that  the  orange  background  already 
contains  some  yellow  and  this  will  affect  the  color.  Experi¬ 
ments  should  be  made  with  this  on  a  separate  piece  of  paper 
before  these  strokes  are  put  in.  The  blue  is  a  greenish  blue 
produced  with  the  slightest  suggestion  of  a  yellow  admix¬ 
ture.  The  outlines  of  the  details  of  this  figure  should  be 
drawn  'ufficiently  strong  in  pencil,  so  that  when  the  back¬ 
ground  wash  is  put  on  they  will  show  clearly  and  enable  the 
student  to  follow  them  closely. 

33.  Fig.  6  is  a  Moorish  design  constructed  on  geomet¬ 
rical  lines,  as  shown  in  Fig.  9,  of  the  text.  Its  three  colors- 
red,  gold,  and  blue — are  very  nearly  pure  colors,  although 
the  blue  contains  a  slight  suggestion  of  yellow  carrying  it 
somewhat  toward  the  green,  but  not  as  much  yellow,  even, 
as  the  blue  in  Fig.  5.  Yellow  is  also  added  to  the  red,  inas¬ 
much  as  the  gold,  which  takes  the  place  of  yellow  in  this 
design,  is  of  a  reddish  tinge,  and  the  addition  of  yellow  to 
the  red  background  produces  a  harmonious  effect. 

34.  Fig.  7  is  a  Gothic  design  wherein  the  background  is 
composed  of  two  shades  of  an  orange  red.  The  color  should 
be  mixed  to  the  lighter  tint  and  washed  rapidly  and  evenly 
over  the  background  throughout  all  portions  except  where 
the  green  exists.  While  the  paper  is  still  wet,  the  darker 
portion  should  be  washed  in  so  that  it  will  cloud  away  into 
the  ground  and  will  not  show  any  distinct  or  sharp  outline. 
The  green  is  a  yellow  green  produced  by  the  addition  of 
blue  to  a  medium  wash  of  yellow  and  should  be  applied  in 
as  e\  en  a  tint  as  possible  so  as  to  show  a  sharp,  clear  outline 
and  contrast  with  the  red  background.  The  white  flowers 
ma>  be  put  in  with  Chinese  white  after  the  ground  is  drv, 


12 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


1? 


as  well  as  the  yellow  blossoms  by  means  of  Chinese  white 
tinted  with  pure  yellow  or  a  light  orange. 


35.  The  essential  characteristic  in  Fig.  8,  which  is  a 
Byzantine  design,  is  the  background,  as  the  Byzantine  blue 
is  a  very  difficult  shade  to  produce.  It  is  a  greenish  blue, 
but  depends  for  its  quality  not  only  on  the  quantity  of  yel¬ 
low  that  is  mixed  with  the  blue  to  give  it  the  greenish  tinge, 
but  also  on  the  thickness  of  the  wash.  The  student  should 
make  repeated  trials  of  this  color  on  separate  pieces  of  paper 


Fig.  li. 


until  the  desired  tint  is  obtained.  The  green  of  the  leaves, 
and  the  upper  part  of  the  design,  may  be  carried  out  with 
the  same  color  as  was  used  for  Fig.  7,  and  the  red  is  the 
same  red  that  was  used  in  Fig.  3.  The  last  color  to  be 
applied  should  be  the  gold,  and  care  should  be  taken  that 
this  does  not  overreach  on  any  of  the  color  work  so  as  to 
impair  the  quality  of  the  outlines.  The  dimensions  for  out 
lining  Fig.  8  will  be  found  on  Fig.  11,  of  the  text. 


18 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


12 


3G.  Fig.  9  is  a  Gothic  design  taken  from  a  stained-glass 
window,  and  although  the  general  dimensions  are  given  in 
Fig.  12,  of  the  text,  the  student  must  lay  out  the  greater 
part  of  it  freehand.  The  background  of  the  figure  is  the 
same  as  in  Fig.  1.  There  are  several  shades  of  red,  blue, 
orange,  and  green  in  this  figure,  and  care  should  be  taken 


to  represent  each  color  with  a  separate  wash  as  simple  as 
possible.  Mix  the  red  and  blue  to  the  proper  tints  first 
and  then  paint  in  the  red  portions  of  the  design.  Both 
of  these  colors  will  require  a  slight  addition  of  yellow  to 
give  them  the  proper  tinge,  as  neither  of  them  is  abso¬ 
lutely  pure.  The  green  is  a  yellow  green  and  therefore 
should  be  produced  by  the  mixture  of  an  excess  of  yellow 
in  the  color. 

3  7.  In  working  with  water  color  the  student  will  find 
that  he  depends  very  largely  on  the  white  drawing  paper 


§12 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


19 


showing  through  the  color  to  produce  a  desired  effect.  A 
thin  wash  of  color  will  produce  a  light  shade  of  that  color, 
because  the  white  of  the  paper  shows  through,  and  there¬ 
fore  in  a  drawing  similar  to  Fig.  9  the  skilful  designer  fre¬ 
quently  lays  the  color  on  rather  heavily  and  while  it  is  still 
wet  removes  portions  of  it  in  different  places  to  diminish 
the  strength  of  the  coating  and  permit  the  white  paper 
to  show  through,  thus  giving  the  effect  of  lighter  tints. 
This  removal  is  accomplished  by  wiping  the  brush  nearly 
dry  and  applying  it  in  little  touches  here  and  there  where  it 
is  desired  to  have  the  color  removed.  The  surplus  color 
will  run  up  into  the  hairs  of  the  brush,  but  can  be  wiped 
out  of  it  from  time  to  time.  In  a  similar  manner,  the  prac¬ 
tical  designer  frequently  produces  effects  of  shadow  or  shaded 
backgrounds,  such  as  is  shown  in  Figs.  2  and  7,  by  darken¬ 
ing  certain  portions  of  the  paper  with  color  before  any  part 
of  the  design  is  colored  in.  The  slightly  shaded  effect  at 
the  center  of  the  red  and  blue  figures  in  Fig.  2,  and  the 
clouded  background  in  Fig.  7  can  be  produced  by  painting 
in  the  darker  portions  on  the  white  paper  before  the  figure 
itself  is  washed  in.  An  even  tint  of  color  is  then  washed 
over  the  entire  surface,  and  the  light  color  shows  where  the 
white  paper  reflects  through  most  strongly,  and  the  darker 
tints  are  produced  where  the  paper  surface  has  been  stained 
or  colored  purposely. 

38.  The  title  on  this  drawing  plate  is  in  the  Old  English 
alphabet,  and  the  student  may  draw  the  same  between  two 
pairs  of  horizontal  lines  spaced  inch  apart  to  limit  the  top 
and  the  bottom  of  the  letters.  The  upper  one  of  this  set  of 
horizontal  lines  should  be  1^  inches  below  the  border  line, 
and  the  two  lines  of  letters  should  be  spaced  ^  inch  apart. 
The  letters  are  colored  with  the  same  tint  of  red  as  is  shown 
in  Fig.  1,  and  the  device  in  the  background  is  of  the  same 
tint  of  blue  as  was  used  in  Fig.  8.  Where  the  letters  reach 
over  on  the  blue  background  figure  they  should  be  outlined 
with  a  fine  line  of  Chinese  white,  and  the  letters  themselves 
should  be  outlined  with  waterproof  black  ink  before  any 


20 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


8  12 


coloring  is  done.  After  inking  in  the  border  line,  the 
student  should  place  his  name  and  class  number  and  letter 


4  '  - »i - 4- 


Fig.  13. 


in  the  lower  right-hand  corner  of  his  plate,  and  the  date  in 
the  lower  left-hand  corner,  as  usual. 


NATU  RAI 


Printed  in  the 
Copyright,  1901,  by  Internal 
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al  Textbook  Company 
Hall.  London 
erved 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


21 


§  12 


DRAWING  PLATE,  TITLE:  NATURAL  FORMS. 

39.  The  figures  on  this  plate,  with  few  exceptions,  are 
very  similar  to  figures  already  executed  by  the  student  in  his 
freehand  drawing  exercises;  therefore,  it  will  be  unneces¬ 
sary  to  particularize  concerning  the  details  of  the  drawing 
itself.  The  central  panel  represents  a  pattern  for  wall  paper 
executed  on  the  principle  demonstrated  in  Freehand  Draw¬ 
ing  on  Drawing  Plate,  title,  Applied  Design. 

In  executing  the  figures  on  this  colored  plate,  the  student 
should  begin  with  the  central  panel.  Draw  it  according  to 
the  dimensions  in  Fig.  13,  of  the  text,  and  locate  it,  in  the 
middle  of  the  plate  horizontally  with  its  top  line  1 inches 
below  the  upper  border  line.  The  other  figures  may  then 
be  located  on  the  spaces  to 


the  right  and  left  of  the 
central  panel  according  to 
the  measurements  given  in 
the  text  cuts. 

40.  H  aving  carefully 
drawn  all  the  details  and 
having  located  each  leaf 
and  petal  in  pencil  on  the 
central  panel  so  that  the 
relation  of  figure  and  back¬ 
ground  is  properly  defined, 
the  student  may  proceed, 
with  Fig.  1,  according  to 
the  measurements  shown  in 
Fisr.  14  and  color  it  as  fob 
lows:  The  petals  of  the 

geometrical  delineation  of 
the  daisy  are  painted  in 
even  tints  of  a  yellow 
orange,  while  the  center  is 

a  dark  brown  obtained  by  mixing  all  of  the  colors  in  the 
following  order.  First,  obtain  a  purple  by  the  mixing  of 


Fig.  11. 


22 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


12 


the  red  and  blue,  then,  a  rather  dark  orange  by  the  mixture 
of  the  red  and  yellow.  When  the  purple  and  orange  are 
combined  they  will  form  a  brown  that  may  be  tempered 
with  one  color  or  the  other  to  bring  it  up  to  the  proper  tint. 
The  naturalistic  rendering  of  the  same  flower  above  may  be 
colored  with  the  same  tints,  and  the  shading  effected  by 
laying  the  tint  heavier  over  the  darker  portions,  the  effect 
of  light  and  shade  being  produced  by  the  transparency  of 
the  color  showing  the  light  paper  from  beneath. 

41.  Fig.  3  is  shown  in  outline  in  Fig.  15,  of  the  text. 
This  figure  shows  the  colored  rendering  of  the  single  carna¬ 
tion  drawn  in  pencil  heretofore,  and  the  tint  of  the  petals  may 

be  obtained  by  means 
of  a  very  light  wash  of 
the  red.  It  may  be 
here  pointed  out  that 
the  term  pink,  which 
is  the  color  of  these 
petals,  usually  refers 
to  a  mixture  of  red 
and  white,  but  in  water- 
color  work  we  depend 
on  the  transparency  of 
the  color  to  show  the 
white  paper  through 
the  pink  in  order  to 
produce  the  desired 
effect.  In  opaque  color, 
of  which  we  will  have 
occasion  to  speak  here¬ 
after,  pink  is  obtained 
by  mixing  the  white 
pigment  directly  with 
the  red  color.  The 
tints  in  Figs  3  and  4  are  precisely  the  same,  except  that  the 
shaded  proportions  of  Fig.  3  are  produced  by  laying  the 
color  heavier  on  these  parts  while  the  wash  on  the  petal  is 


12 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


23 


still  wet,  thus  causing  it  to  shade  in  and  blend  itself  into 
the  general  tint.  Details  a ,  b,  c,  and  d  of  Fig.  4  should  be 
washed  in  in  absolutely  flat  tints  corresponding  to  the  body 
tints  in  Fig.  3. 

42.  Fig.  6,  the  dimensions  of  which  are  shown  in  Fig.  16, 
is  rather  more  difficult  to  render;  the  principal  color,  however, 
is  a  yellow  orange,  which  can  be  obtained  by  making  up  a 
wash  of  yellow  and  mixing  with  it  the  slightest  suggestion  of 
red.  The  dark  portions  of  the  wings  of  the  insect  may  be  put  in 
with  rather  a  heavy  wash 
of  brown  mixed  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  brown 
for  Fig.  1.  Or,  if  unsatis¬ 
factory  results  are  ob¬ 
tained  from  this  method, 
a  wash  of  black,  or  India 
ink  may  be  introduced, 
although  the  latter  method 
is  entirely  unnecessary  as 
a  very  dark  brown  may 
be  obtained  by  mixing  the 
three  colors  liberally  and  permitting  the  blue  to  dominate. 
The  blue  spots  in  the  lower  portions  of  the  wings  may  be 
produced  by  laying  a  wash  of  blue  over  the  yellow  that 
already  forms  the  body  wash  of  the  figure,  the  spots  being 

a  greenish  blue,  and  the  wash  of 
pure  blue  on  top  of  the  yellow 
being  sufficient  to  produce  the 
desired  tint. 

43.  In  Fig.  7  we  have  a 
dragon  fly  whose  outline  is 
shown  in  Fig.  17.  Its  color 
is  a  blue  green  composed  of  a 
mixture  of  yellow  and  blue  in  proportions  that  can  be 
best  determined  by  experiment.  4  he  shaded  poi  tions  of 
the  wings  are  produced  by  the  addition  of  a  biown  wash 


24  COLOR  HARMONY.  §  12 

mixed  as  for  the  shading  of  Fig.  6  but  much  lighter  in  its 
consistency. 


44.  With  Fig.  8  much  difficulty  is  likely  to  be  experi¬ 
enced  unless  great  care  is  taken.  All  the  details  should  be 
carefully  drawn  in  pencil  according  to  measurements  given 
in  Fig.  IS,  and  then  the  dark  portions  of  the  figure  shaded 
in  with  a  wash  of  brown  mixed  precisely  in  the  same  man¬ 
ner  as  for  Fig.  6.  This  wash  will  form  the  top  of  the  head, 
the  ends  of  the  mouth,  the  shade  along  the  back  and  into 
the  ribs  of  the  fins,  and  also  the  small  crescents  suggesting 


the  shape  and  posi¬ 
tion  of  the  scales.  In 
the  last  ease,  how¬ 
ever,  the  wash  should 
be  very  thin  in  order 
not  to  be  too  promi¬ 
nent.  The  entire  fig¬ 
ure  may  then  be 
washed  over  with  a 
light  orange  tint  sim¬ 
ilar  to  the  orange  used 
in  Fig.  6.  The  green 
tint  along  the  back 
and  under  the  fin  may 
be  laid  while  this 
orange  wash  is  still 
fig.  is.  wet,  by  overlaying  a 

wash  of  purple  to 
which  a  little  yellow  may  be  added  to  preserve  the  green. 

I  he  fin  itself  is  of  a  green  color  but  possessing  much  less 
yellow,  and  may  be  formed  by  adding  a  little  blue  to  the 
tint  already  obtained  along  the  back.  The  under  side  of 
the  fish,  exclusive  of  the  fins,  may  be  tinted  with  a  light 
wash  of  purple,  allowing  it  to  run  up  on  the  side  so  as  to 
form  the  two  or  three  alternate  stripes  of  yellow,  as  shown. 
The  salmon  color  that  tints  a  portion  of  the  sides  and  the 
lower  fins  is  obtained  by  laying  a  thin  coat  of  orange  shaded 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


25 


12 


slightly  with  pure  red.  Experiment  with  these  colors  and 
comparison  with  the  original  drawing  will  indicate  to  the 
student  the  simplicity  with  which  these  details  will  be 
carried  out. 


45.  Fig.  9  consists  apparently  of  thi'ee  colors,  but  in 
reality  of  only  two.  The  brown  mixed  for  Fig.  6  may  be 


used  with  an  addition  of 
blue  to  form  the  black  of 
the  upper  portion  of  the 
wings.  The  red  is  ob¬ 
tained  by  adding  to  a  thin 
wash  of  this  same  brown  a 
considerable  quantity  of 
plain  red  and  tempering 
it  with  yellow  to  bring  it 
to  the  proper  tint,  while 
the  brown  in  the  lower 


blue  has  been  added 
The 


wings  consists  of  a  thin 

wash  of  the  same  brown  to  which  some 


with  enough  yellow  to  produce  the  particular  tint, 
outline  of  this  figure  is  shown  in  Fig.  19. 


46.  It  will  be  evident  to  the  student  that  all  these 
figures  must  be  drawn  separately  and  experimented  on 
before  he  attempts  his  drawing  plate,  and  in  Figs.  1  to  4 
both  the  geometrical  and  the  natural  rendering  of  the  forms 
have  been  given  in  order  that  the  flat  tints  may  be  applied 
to  the  former  to  secure  the  color  and  the  shaded  tints  to  the 
latter  to  secure  the  effect.  In  Figs.  6  to  9,  the  student  has 
worked  over  a  flat  tint  in  each  case,  the  whole  figure  being 
laid  out  in  an  even  tone  and  the  shading  put  in  afterwards. 
This  is  the  principle  on  which  he  should  work  for  all  water- 
color  drawing.  If  he  is  desirous  of  rendering  in  water  color 
some  natural  form  that  has  not  come  under  his  notice  in 
these  studies,  he  should  go  back  to  the  principles  given  in 
Freehand  Drawing  to  make  the  first  pencil  sketch.  He  can 
then  analyze  this  form  and  put  it  in  a  geometrical  position 
and  color  it  with  flat  tints.  He  can  then  proceed  with  his 


26 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


12 


natural  rendering  and  shading,  as  illustrated  here.  A  prin¬ 
ciple  that  applies  to  one  thing  applies  to  all,  and  there  should 
be  no  more  difficulty  in  rendering  the  naturalistic  drawing 
of  a  rose  or  chrysanthemum  than  in  these  simple  forms  here, 
after  the  student  has  applied  the  principles  he  has  studied 
and  has  endeavored  to  put  them  into  practice. 

47.  In  drawing  Fig.  5,  the  student  will  adapt  to  the  con¬ 
ditions  of  repeating  ornament  a  natural  form  and  work  its 
rendering  under  the  limitations  of  the  wall-paper  printing 
machine.  In  this  work  the  background  represents  the  color 
of  the  paper  itself,  and  every  tint  or  shade,  as  well  as  every 
separate  color,  must  represent  an  additional  pigment  in  the 
printing  of  the  figure.  In  this  figure  there  are  five  colors, 
practically,  besides  the  background,  although  theoretically 
there  are  but  two — green  and  red — but  inasmuch  as  the 
student  is  working  for  practical  purposes  he  will,  after  draw¬ 
ing  this  figure  in  pencil  outline,  render  it  with  five  separate 
colors  mixed  as  follows  :  The  background  consists  of  the 
lightest  possible  wash  of  a  salmon  pink,  composed  of  orange 
to  which  a  little  red  has  been  added,  so  that  when  applied 
over  the  white  paper  the  effect  of  pink  with  a  yellowish  tinge 
is  obtained.  While  this  is  drying,  the  student  may  mix  two 
shades  of  green  and  two  shades  of  red  with  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  Chinese  white  to  produce  an  opaque  pigment. 
The  amount  of  color  can  be  determined  only  by  experi¬ 
ment.  The  amount  of  Chinese  white  should  be  sufficient  to 
render  the  applied  color  absolutely  opaque  and  no  more,  and 
should  be  of  a  similar  consistency  with  the  color  on  previous 
plates  that  were  rendered  in  black-and-white  only,  where  the 
darker  portions  were  mixed  with  Chinese  white  to  give 
them  body. 

In  this  figure  the  student  can  use  pure  red  for  the  darker 
color  of  the  chrysanthemum  and  mix  it  until  the  color 
remains  the  full  depth  when  dry.  This  same  color,  with  the 
addition  of  a  little  yellow  and  more  Chinese  white,  will  form 
the  lighter  tint  of  red  The  light  green  is  formed  in  the 
same  manner  by  mixing  the  desired  tint  of  green  with 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


27 


§12 

Chinese  white  until,  after  application,  it  dries  out  to  the 
lighter  tint  shown  on  the  drawing  plate.  Then,  a  darker  tint 
of  green  should  be  mixed  by  adding  more  color  and  a  slight 
suggestion  of  brown  in  order  to  produce  the  shadow. 

48.  The  whole  drawing  may  now  be  colored  in  with  the 
lighter  tints  of  mixed  colors,  each  petal  of  the  chrysanthe¬ 
mum  being  made  by  means  of  a  single  stroke  of  the  brush 
charged  with  the  lighter  color  of  red.  The  green  leaves 
should  be  washed  in  with  the  green,  the  point  of  each  leaf 
lobe  being  the  subject  of  one  brush  stroke  and  all  brought 
together  in  the  middle  and  painted  down  until  they  reach 
the  stem.  After  this  is  dry,  the  darker  colors  may  be 
touched  on,  as  shown,  to  produce  the  shaded  effect,  but  the 
brushes  should  be  washed  out  so  that  there  will  be  no  con¬ 
tamination  of  tints  or  colors,  and  the  darker  color  may  be 
painted  over  the  lighter.  The  veining  of  the  leaves  and  the 
shading  of  the  stems  may  be  effected  with  the  same  dark 
color  of  red  as  was  used  for  the  shading  of  the  petals  of  the 
chrysanthemum. 

49.  If,  in  mixing  these  colors,  there  is  any  tendency  for 
them  to  powder  or  scale  off,  the  addition  of  a  few  drops  of 
gum  arabic  or  mucilage  to  the  mixed  color  will  prevent  the 
difficulty  and  bind  the  colors  together.  Chinese  white  is 
sometimes  called  zinc  white,  and  is  in  reality  an  oxide  of 
zinc  This  zinc  oxide  can  be  purchased  in  powdered  form 
at  any  paint  store,  and  mixed  up  to  form  the  white  that  may 
afterwards  be  used  for  body  color,  as  follows  :  First,  shake  it 
up  in  a  bottle  with  a  large  quantity  of  water  until  it  is 
thoroughly  mixed,  then  stand  the  bottle  aside  for  several 
days  until  all  the  zinc  white  has  settled  to  the  bottom.  The 
clear  water  on  top  of  the  pasty  mass  should  then  be  poured 
off  and  a  small  quantity  of  glue  or  mucilage  added  in  order 
to  hold  the  particles  together  after  it  is  applied  to  any  surface. 
This  white  paste  may  then  be  mixed  with  water  colors  or 
powdered  colors,  such  as  are  used  for  fresco  work,  and  will 
in  every  way  fulfil  the  requirements  demanded  in  these 


exercises. 


A  SERIES  OF  QUESTIONS 


Relating  to  the  Subjects 
Treated  of  in  This  Volume, 


It  will  be  noticed  that  the  questions  contained  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  pages  are  divided  into  sections  corresponding  to  the 
sections  of  the  text  of  the  preceding  pages,  so  that  each 
section  has  a  headline  that  is  the  same  as  the  headline  of 
the  section  to  which  the  questions  refer.  No  attempt  should 
be  made  to  answer  any  of  the  questions  until  the  corre¬ 
sponding  part  of  the  text  has  been  carefully  studied. 


PLANT  ANALYSIS 


EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS 

Note. — Each  drawing  or  study  should  be  made  on  a  sheet  of  draw¬ 
ing  paper  about  7i  inches  by  10  inches,  with  class  letter  and  number 
neatly  written  in  one  corner.  All  drawings  and  written  answers  are  to 
be  mailed  flat,  at  one  time,  for  correction. 

(1)  What  is  meant  by  plant  analysis  in  decorative 
design? 

(2)  What  is  conventionalism? 

(3)  Into  what  three  general  classes  can  all  designs  be 
subdivided? 

(4)  (a)  What  is  L’Art  Nouveau?  (b)  Where  and  from 
what  did  it  originate? 

(5)  Make  two  original  studies  of  conventional  renderings 
from  some  simple  plant  form,  as  explained  in  Art.  11. 

(6)  Make  two  original  studies  of  natural  plant  forms 
similar  to  those  illustrated  in  Fig.  7. 

(7)  Make  two  original  floral  studies  in  color,  as  illus¬ 
trated  in  Fig.  9. 

(8)  Make  two  sets  of  conventional  designs  based  on  the 
floral  studies  in  question  7. 

(9)  Make  six  original  conventional  designs  based  on  plant 
growth  to  fill  fixed  spaces  (two  square,  two  triangular,  and 
two  lozenge  shape),  as  described  in  Art.  15. 


25 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS 

Note. — In  answering  these  questions  do  not  use  the  words  of  the 
text,  but  express  the  matter  in  your  own  words.  Answer  all  the 
questions;  then  execute  all  the  color  charts,  and  send  everything 
in  to  the  Schools  at  one  time.  Use  paper  about  1\"  X  10". 

(1)  (a)  What  is  the  difference  in  the  composition  of 
transparent  water  colors  and  distemper  colors?  ( b )  How  is 
each  applied?  (c)  Give  one  or  more  examples  of  designs 
rendered  in  each  medium. 

(2)  Explain  at  length  in  what  cases  the  designer’s  sketch 
should  be  a  picture  of  the  finished  object,  and  in  what  cases 
a  detailed  sectional  drawing. 

(3)  Give  a  list  of  colors  that  are  most  frequently  needed 
by  the  designer. 

(4)  Describe  in  detail  the  process  of  grinding  color,  and 
explain  the  importance  of  the  use  of  “size.” 

(5)  Give  Henry  T.  Bailey’s  classification  of  color  har¬ 
monies,  and  describe  each  one. 

(6)  What  are  triads? 

(7)  In  the  matching  of  colors,  what  influence  is  exerted 
on  the  general  effect  by  the  intensity  or  mass  of  either  or 
both  colors? 

(8)  (a)  What  is  the  most  fruitful  source  of  ideas  for 
color  schemes?  (b)  Give  six  actual  examples. 

(9)  Which  color  combination  is  more  advantageous  to 
the  student  to  practice,  the  soft  and  unpretentious,  or  the 
rich  and  brilliant,  and  why? 


?6 


2 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


6 


(10)  If  called  on  to  make  designs  for  the  following,  what 
medium  would  you  use  in  each  case,  and  why?  (a)  a  stained- 
glass  window;  {b)  a  wallpaper;  ( c )  a  bookcover;  (d)  a 
mahogany  table;  (e)  a  perspective  interior  view  of  church 
frescoing;  (/)  a  piece  of  furniture;  (g)  a  piece  of  silverware. 

(11)  What  is  color  blindness? 

(12)  Why  should  the  designer  have  a  good  color  sense? 

(13)  Which  are  the  easier  to  match,  and  why,  pieces  of 
red  silk,  or  pieces  of  red  cotton  cloth? 

(14)  ( a )  What  effect  does  lamplight  or  gaslight  have  on 
colors?  ( b )  Give  three  examples. 

(15)  Into  what  five  general  classes  may  all  schemes  of 
color  be  divided? 

(16)  What  are  the  three  sources  from  which  all  color 
inspiration  may  be  drawn? 

(17)  Explain  at  length  the  law  of  simultaneous  contrast 
and  give  several  illustrations  of  it. 

(18)  (a)  What  is  the  difference  in  the  effect  of  combining 
complementary  pairs  of  colored  lights,  and  complementary 
pairs  of  colored  pigments?  (b)  How  is  this  illustrated  in 
the  case  of  textiles? 


COLOR  CHARTS 

Note. — These  charts  should  be  drawn  exactly  as  directed  and 
retained  until  all  are  completed;  then  the  entire  set,  together  with  the 
written  answers,  should  be  sent  in  to  the  Schools  at  one  time. 

Prepare  Color  Chart  A  as  described  in  Art.  8,  laying  out 
the  squares  according  to  dimensions  given  in  Fig.  2. 

Prepare  Color  Chart  D  as  described  in  Art.  10,  using  five 
pieces  of  colored  cloth,  yarn,  or  paper,  as  examples  of 
materials  to  be  matched.  Paste  or  tie  the  examples  on  the 
chart  between  the  squares  of  color,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3. 

Prepare  Color  Chart  C  as  described  in  Art.  17,  laying  out 
the  figure  and  lettering  it  accurately,  as  in  Fig.  4,  and 
applying  the  papers  from  the  color  book  as  directed. 


§6 


DISTEMPER  COLOR 


3 


Prepare  Color  Chart  D — the  working  scale  of  pure  spec¬ 
trum  colors — as  directed  in  Art.  20. 

Prepare  Color  Chart  E — the  working  scale  of  broken 
spectrum  colors — as  directed  in  Art.  21. 

Prepare  an  original  scheme  of  color,  as  suggested  in  first 
paragraph  of  Art.  23,  illustrating  the  five  classes  of  color 
harmonies,  contrasted ’,  dominant ,  complementary ,  analogous, 
and  perfected ,  as  given  in  Art.  20,  by  observing  and  using 
the  color  combinations  as  seen:  (a)  in  any  selected  floral 
group;  (l>)  in  a  summer  landscape,  with  green  fields  and 
blue  sky;  ( c )  in  an  autumn  scene,  with  red,  green,  and 
yellow-tinted  foliage.  Use  distemper  color. 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS 

Note. — Answer  all  questions,  then  make  all  the  original  designs  on 
paper  7\  inches  by  10  inches  and  mail  flat  to  the  Schools  at  one  time. 

(1)  (a)  With  what  nation  and  in  whose  reign  did  the  first 
especially  designed  stamping  tools  originate?  (b)  Describe 
these  tools. 

(2)  Who  was  Grolier,  and  what  characterized  his  style 
of  bindings? 

(3)  (a)  What  was  the  origin  of  bookbinding?  ( b )  Who 
were  really  the  first  binders? 

(4)  Describe  the  early  Italian  bindings. 

(5)  (a)  Who  were  Le  Gascon  and  De  Thou?  (b)  How 
may  their  bindings  be  recognized? 

(6)  What  change  took  place  in  French  bookbindings 
after  the  reign  of  Charles  IX? 

(7)  What  devices  for  stamping  were  introduced  during 
the  reign  of  Francis  I? 

(8)  Describe,  in  detail,  the  style  of  bookcovers  in  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIV. 

(9)  What  characterized  the  bookcovers  of  the  Deromes? 

(10)  What  was  the  Jansen  style  of  binding? 

(11)  Describe  the  mosaic  bindings  of  Padloup. 

(12)  (a)  Why  were  fanfares  so  called?  (b)  What  binder 
used  them  extensively? 


07 


2 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


7 


(13)  Why  should  the  modern  designer  have  a  clear 
knowledge  of  historic  styles? 

(14)  Describe  the  following  processes  in  binding:  (a)  for¬ 
warding;  (?>)  finishing. 

(15)  Name  and  describe  the  different  classes  of  modern 
bindings  as  regards  the  material  used. 

(16)  Describe,  in  detail,  the  process  of  modern  tooling. 

(17)  What  requirements  must  be  observed  by  the 
designer  in  order  to  make  salable  designs? 

(18)  What  are  the  two  general  classes  of  modern  book- 
covers,  as  regards  their  execution? 

(19)  Describe  the  various  kinds  of  dies  and  plates  used 
in  stamping  and  printing  modern  bookcovers. 

(20)  How  must  the  drawings  be  made  for  the  process  of 
printing  from  zinc-etched  plates? 

(21)  Describe  the  various  stages  in  the  evolution  of  a 
bookcover  design,  and  illustrate  each  by  a  small  outline 
sketch  on  your  answer  paper,  simply  showing  lines  and 
masses. 

(22)  In  what  medium  are  designs  made  for  the  half-tone 
process  of  printing? 

(23)  What  important  requisites  are  necessary  in  order  to 
do  successful  bookcover  designing? 

(24)  What  is  a  book  plate? 

(25)  Describe  the  four  general  types  of  book  plates. 

(26)  Why  is  good  lettering  important  in  bookcover  and 
book-plate  designs? 

(27)  Make  a  design  for  a  tooled  cover  in  the  style  of 
Louis  XIV,  showing  (on  a  separate  strip  below  the  regular 
design)  facsimile  impressions  of  each  tool  used. 

(28)  Make  a  design  for  a  modern  tooled  cover  in  gold, 
and  show  below  the  design  facsimile  impressions  of  the 
tools  used. 


§7 


BOOKCOVER  DESIGNING 


3 


(29)  Make  a  design  for  a  cloth  cover,  octavo  size, 
6  inches  by  9  inches,  to  include  printing  in  three  colors  and 
gold,  on  a  colored  cloth  ground. 

(30)  Make  a  design  for  the  cover  of  a  paper-bound  book, 
using  three  colors,  exclusive  of  the  color  of  the  paper. 
Make  three  separate  drawings,  in  black  ink,  for  the  blocks 
to  be  used  in  printing. 

(31)  Make  four  original  designs  for  book  plates — double 
the  size  they  are  to  be  printed — illustrating  the  four  general 
types  given  in  your  answer  to  question  25. 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS 

Note.— Answer  these  questions  fully, — in  your  own  words, — do  not 
use  the  wording  of  the  Instruction  Paper.  Write  out  the  answers  on 
paper  about  7-|  inches  by  10  inches,  then  make  the  designs,  and  mail 
ail  at  one  time  to  the  Schools  for  correction. 

(1)  Explain,  fully,  the  meaning  of  the  following  terms: 
(a)  weft  threads;  (b)  warp  threads;  (r)  end;  (d)  pick; 
( e )  chain  warp;  (/)  stuffing  warp;  (g)  beam;  ( h )  pile 
warp;  (z)  backing. 

(2)  What  character  of  curves  in  the  design  will  work  out 
most  gracefully  in  the  finished  carpet? 

(3)  Describe,  fully,  the  use  and  meaning  of  the  squared 
subdivisions  on  the  design  paper,  and  how  they  correspond 
to  the  warp  and  weft  threads  in  the  actual  fabric. 

(4)  What  are  frames? 

(5)  What  is  the  standard  repeat  for  Brussels  and  Wilton 
carpets? 

(6)  What  are  the  usual  widths  of  stair  carpets? 

(7)  Describe  a  five-frame  Brussels  carpet. 

(8)  What  is  “ticking  in”? 

(9)  Why  is  body  Brussels  so  called? 

(10)  Can  a  designer  use  more  colors  than  there  are 
frames  in  the  loom? 

(11)  Describe,  in  detail,  the  process  of  making  carpets 
intended  to  be  formed  into  rugs. 


2 


CARPET  DESIGNING 


8 


(12)  What  are  the  mechanical  limitations  in  planted 
designs,  and  why  should  the  experienced  designer  have  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  them? 

(13)  What  general  sizes  must  be  used,  and  why,  in 
designing  rugs  formed  from  such  carpets  as  are  mentioned 
in  question  11? 

(14)  What  sources  furnish  to  the  beginner  the  most 
practical  suggestions  for  ideas  for  carpet  designs? 

(15)  What  character  of  carpet  designs  are  most  popular 
at  the  present  time? 

(16)  Wherein  lies  the  difference  in  the  manufacture  of 
Wilton  carpetings  and  of  oriental  rugs;  and  what  difference 
in  quality  results  therefrom? 

(17)  What  is  the  effect  of  aniline  dyes  on  the  material  of 
the  rugs? 

(18)  Mention  three  of  the  best  quality  of  Persian  rugs, 
and  describe  each. 

(19)  Can  oriental  rug  designs  be  successfully  imitated 
in  modern  machine-woven  rugs?  Give  reasons  for  answer. 

(20)  Which  is  the  more  expensive,  proportionally,  Brus¬ 
sels  or  Wilton  carpet;  and  why? 

(21)  Describe  the  process  of  chintzing. 

(22)  Make  an  original  design,  one-fourth  the  actual  size 
of  a  standard  repeat,  “roughed  in”  in  colors  (as  explained  in 
Art.  5),  for  a  five-frame  carpet  using  oriental  designs  and 
coloring. 

(23)  Make  a  similar  sketch  for  a  Wilton  rug  known  as  a 
“hall  runner.” 


OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM 
DESIGNING 


EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS 

Note. — Send  in  the  written  answers  and  the  four  original  colored 
designs  all  at  one  time. 

(1)  What  is  the  paramount  principle  governing-  floor 
coverings? 

(2)  Describe,  in  detail,  the  different  blocks  for  printing 
oilcloths,  and  give  the  use  of  each. 

(3)  Which  is  the  more  durable,  ordinary  oilcloth  or  inlay 
linoleum,  and  why? 

(4)  Why  are  simple  patterns  more  suitable  than  ones 
greatly  elaborated? 

(5)  Describe  the  process  of  machine  printing. 

(6)  What  kind  of  patterns  are  the  best  “sellers”  for  the 
general  trade? 

(7)  Describe,  in  detail,  the  process  of  making  a  drawing 
for  an  oilcloth  design. 

(8)  What  three  general  classes  of  designs  must  the 
oilcloth  designer  be  able  to  produce  in  order  to  meet  the 
demands  of  the  public? 

(9)  What  kind  of  oilcloth  designs  is  the  manufacturer 
most  likely  to  object  to? 


§9 


2 


OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM  DESIGNING  §9 


(10)  What  is  the  most  fertile  source  of  ideas  for  the 
designer? 

(11)  Mention  the  most  prominent  characteristics  neces¬ 
sary  in  a  designer  to  produce  salable  designs. 


DESIGNS 

Note. — Prepare  these  designs  as  directed  in  Arts.  10  and  11,  using 
the  greatest  care  and  accuracy  in  executing  them. 

(12)  Make  four  original  designs  in  color  full  size  and 
rendered  so  as  to  be  presentable  to  a  manufacturer,  as 
follows:  (a)  one  in  which  the  circle  is  the  governing  form; 
( b )  one  for  inlay  linoleum;  (c)  one  using  the  severely  con¬ 
ventionalized  daisy,  combined  with  geometrical  forms; 
( d )  one  in  simple  colored  mosaics. 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS 

(1)  (a)  How  should  the  outline  in  design  be  rendered 
where  it  is  intended  to  have  the  colors  in  the  finished  fabric 
blend  together?  ( b )  Why? 

(2)  Why  are  machine-print  papers  more  in  demand  in 
America  than  hand-print  papers? 

(3)  {a)  Why  is  it  necessary  in  laying  out  a  wallpaper 
design  to  have  a  margin  around  the  repeat?  ( b )  How  wide 
should  this  margin  be? 

(4)  What  are  the  standard  lengths  of  repeat? 

(5)  What  character  of  design  is  usually  found  most 
salable? 

(6)  How  do  American  manufacturers  make  use  of  the 
expensive  European  hand-print  designs? 

(7)  How  may  a  designer  arrive  at  a  general  idea  of 
what  the  coming  styles  in  wallpaper  are  to  be? 

(8)  What  is  the  great  difference  in  appearance  between 
a  hand-print  and  a  machine-print  paper? 

(9)  What  are  the  qualifications  of  a  successful  designer? 

(10)  Make  three  original  drawings  of  different  flower 
subjects,  and  render  them  in  opaque  color  similar  to  Fig.  6. 

(11)  Make  three  designs  suitable  for  wallpaper,  using 
some  conventionalized  plant  form  as  the  motive. 


2 


WALLPAPER  DESIGNING 


10 


(12)  (a)  Make  two  designs  for  wallpaper,  one  conven¬ 

tional  in  style,  and  the  other  natural,  but  both  based  on  the 
same  motive.  (b)  Send  in  witn  each  of  these  the  rough 
preliminary  sketches  from  which  the  design  was  worked  up. 

Note. — All  drawings  to  be  executed  in  color  on  sheets  about  7^ 
inches  by  10  inches.  Wallpaper  designs  to  be  one-third  actual  work¬ 
ing  size. 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS 

Note. — All  drawings  are  to  be  made  on  sheets  of  drawing  paper 
7J  inches  by  10  inches  and  mailed  flat.  All  drawings  are  to  be  as 
large  as  the  sheet  will  permit. 

(1)  Design  a  triumphal  arch  as  a  monument  to  the 
achievements  of  the  20th  century.  This  monument  may 
have  from  one  to  five  arches  and  is  to  be  of  the  Tuscan  Ionic 
Order  with  an  attic  story  or  continuous  pedestal  above  the 
entablature.  Its  pediments,  panels,  etc.  must  be  enriched 
with  inscriptions  in  carving,  and  the  columns  or  pilasters  are 
to  rest  on  pedestals.  A  plan  with  two  elevations  and  a 
section  is  to  be  drawn,  each  on  a  separate  sheet.  The 
elements  characteristic  of  the  20th  century  that  may  be  used 
to  enter  into  the  decorative  features  are  steamships,  railroads, 
telegraphs,  telephones,  machinery,  chemistry,  and  devices 
symbolic  of  arbitration,  free  government,  free  thought,  free 
speech,  free  trade,  free  men,  etc. 

(2)  Design  a  tetrastyle  portico  in  front  of  a  single-room 
building,  same  to  show  plan  and  elevation  on  one  sheet,  and 
large  details  of  capital,  entablature,  and  base  of  the  order  on 
the  second  sheet. 

(3)  Design  an  arcade,  or  series  of  two  or  more  arches 
resting  on  piers  and  carrying  spandrels  crowned  by  the 
Tuscan  entablature,  each  arch  to  be  a  semicircle  and  to  have 
an  archivolt  and  keystone,  the  architrave  of  the  entablature 
resting  on  the  keystone.  The  piers  are  to  have  bases  and 
imposts  and  to  be  enriched  with  columns  or  pilasters  planted 
against  their  faces  after  the  Roman  style,  particular  attention 


r 


§11 


2 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


to  be  given  to  the  proportions  of  the  piers,  and  their  distance 
apart,  as  this  determines  the  size  of  the  arch  and  width  of  the 
opening,  and  in  turn  regulates  the  width  of  the  archivolt,  the 
width  and  height  of  the  keystone,  and  the  proportions  of 
the  base,  impost,  and  entablature. 

(4)  Design  a  gateway  at  the  entrance  to  a  garden  or 
vineyard,  using  the  Tuscan  or  Doric  Order.  The  wall  around 
the  vineyard  is  a  low  parapet,  or  continuous  pedestal,  sur¬ 
mounted  with  an  ornamental  iron  fence,  or  cresting,  and  the 
entrance  is  closed  with  iron  gates.  Draw  a  plan  elevation 
and  section  through  the  Doric  gateway. 

(5)  In  Fig.  104,  History  of  Architecture,  is  shown  a  build¬ 
ing  of  the  style  of  the  late  French  Renaissance.  Redraw  the 


elevation  of  this  building  but 
substitute  the  Tuscan  Order 
for  the  columns,  pilasters,  en¬ 
tablatures,  etc.  In  doing  this, 
vary  any  proportions  that 
may  be  necessary  in  order  to 
make  this  substitution,  but 
keep  the  general  arrangement 
practically  the  same. 


(6)  Design  a  well  curb, 
similar  to  Fig.  I,  either  cir¬ 
cular  or  octagonal,  support 
ing  two  Tuscan  columns  with 
pedestals  and  entablature. 
From  the  center  of  the  entab¬ 
lature  hangs  a  pulley  over 
which  runs  a  rope  carrying  a 
bucket.  Draw  the  front  and 
side  elevation  on  one  sheet 


Fig.  I 


and  the  plan  and  details  of  capital  and  pedestal  mouldings 
on  another  sheet. 


(7)  (a)  Draw  front  and  side  elevations  of  a  pergola 

consisting  of  two  rows  of  four  columns,  supporting  beams, 


§11 


THE  AMERICAN  VIGNOLA 


3 


as  shown  in  Fig.  II,  but  substitute  round  Tuscan  columns 
for  the  square  posts  shown  in  the  figure,  and  chamfered  and 
moulded  beams,  (b)  On  a  separate  sheet,  draw  a  perspective 
of  the  pergola,  showing  the  perspective  plan  and  the  draw¬ 
ing  above  it  as  required. 


(8)  Draw  the  Roman  Ionic  Capital  and  Base. 

(9)  Draw  the  Doric  Denticulated  Entablature. 

(10)  Draw  a  Doric  Capital. 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS. 

(1)  Make  a  drawing  \\  inches  square,  wherein  a  vine 
and  four  ivy  leaves  are  arranged  so  that  the  green  leaves 
are  properly  proportioned  against  a  red  background. 

(2)  Of  what  colors  is  green  composed  ? 

(3)  In  what  proportion  must  the  primary  colors  exist  in 
order  to  completely  neutralize  one  another  ? 

(4)  In  what  proportion  will  green  neutralize  red  ? 

(5)  What  are  the  secondary  colors  ? 

(6)  What  is  light  ? 

(7)  Make  a  drawing  L  inch  wide  and  8  inches  long, 
wherein  the  primary  colors  are  arranged  in  their  proper 
proportions  in  order  to  produce  harmony  and  with  the 
warmest  color  at  the  top. 

(8)  Of  what  is  purple  composed  ? 

(9)  What  is  a  tertiary  color  ?  What  is  a  chromatic  scale  ? 

(10)  What  is  shadow  ? 

(11)  In  what  proportion  will  purple  neutralize  yellow  ? 

(12)  What  is  color  ? 

(13)  What  is  meant  by  a  “  warm  color  ”  ? 

1 12 


2 


COLOR  HARMONY. 


§  12 


(14)  Of  what  is  olive  composed  ? 

(15)  In  what  proportion  will  orange  neutralize  blue  ? 

(10)  What  is  meant  by  a  “cold  color  ”  ? 

(17)  (a)  Of  how  many  colors  is  white  light  composed  ? 

(. b )  Name  them. 

(IS)  Of  what  colors  is  citrine  composed  ? 

(19)  Of  what  colors  is  crimson  composed  ? 

(20)  What  are  the  properties  of  red  in  the  chromatic 
scale  ? 

(21)  What  is  the  spectrum  ? 

(22)  Of  what  colors  is  violet  composed  ? 

(23)  Of  what  is  orange  composed  ? 

(24)  What  are  the  primary  colors  ? 

(25)  Of  what  colors  is  russet  composed  ? 

(26)  What  is  meant  by  “neutralize”  ? 


INDEX 


Note.  — All  items  in  this  index  refer  first  to  the  section  and  then  to  the  page  of  the 
section.  Thus,  Attics  11  91”  means  that  attics  will  be  found  on  page  91  of  section  11. 


A 

Sec. 

Page. 

Sec. 

Page 

Abacus,  Explanation  of  .  .  . 

ii 

10 

Blocks,  Explanation  of . 

11 

18 

American  Vignola,  The  .  . 

H 

9 

Outline . 

9 

1 

Wilton  rugs  . 

8 

22 

Preparing  the . 

9 

1 

Analogous  harmony  .... 

0 

23 

Blue  and  yellow  colors . 

12 

4 

Analysis  of  white  light  .  .  . 

12 

2 

Bookbinding . 

7 

i 

Plant  . 

5 

1 

Characteristics  of 

Analytic  study  of  plants  . 

5 

14 

Italian  . 

7 

7 

Arcade,  Explanation  of  ...  . 

11 

12 

Early  stages  of  the 

Arches,  Explanation  of  .  .  . 

11 

12 

art  of . 

7 

1 

Architrave,  Explanation  of  ...  . 

11 

12 

18th  century . 

7 

21 

Architraves,  Drawing  of . 

11 

G9 

Heraldry  in . 

7 

3 

Artificial  light  on  colors.  Effect  of 

6 

12 

Modern . 

7 

22 

Astragal,  Explanation  of  .  . 

11 

14 

Origin  of . 

7 

1 

11 

19 

Tendency  of  early  . 

7 

12 

Attics  . 

11 

91 

Bookcover  cartoons.  Making  the  . 

7 

31 

B 

design,  Character  of  . 

7 

1 

Early  i  n  f  1  u- 

Balusters . 

11 

88 

ences  and 

Balustrades . 

11 

88 

styles  of  .  .  . 

7 

5 

Band,  Explanation  of  .  . 

11 

14 

Evolution  of  a 

7 

38 

Base  of  walls . 

11 

10 

Grolier  style  of 

7 

5 

Bead,  Explanation  of . 

11 

14 

Jansen  style  of 

7 

19 

Beam,  Explanation  of . 

11 

12 

designing . 

7 

1 

Bed  mould,  Explanation  of  ...  . 

11 

18 

designing,  Requisites 

Bedroom  wallpaper . 

10 

32 

for  successful  .... 

7 

46 

Bell  of  the  capital,  Explanation 

designs  g  o  vern  ed  by 

of  . 

11 

19 

the  tools,  Early  .  .  . 

7 

3 

Binding,  Character  of  modern  .  . 

7 

22 

designs.  Origin  of 

Cloth  . 

7 

25 

French  tools  for  .  . 

7 

4 

Extra . 

7 

25 

style  of  Louis  XIV  .  . 

7 

18 

Half . 

7 

25 

of  M  argaret  of 

Hand  and  machine  .  .  . 

7 

29 

Valois . 

7 

17 

Mosaic . 

7 

19 

styles  of  Henry  II  and 

Process  of . 

7 

23 

Henry  III  .  .  . 

7 

17 

Whole . 

7 

25 

of  Le  Gascon  and 

Bindings,  Character  of  early  .  . 

7 

2 

De  Thou  .... 

7 

16 

Cheaper . 

7 

28 

Bookcovers,  Classes  of . 

7 

32 

Classification  of  .... 

7 

24 

Francis  I . 

7 

15 

Derome . 

7 

20 

Printed  . 

7 

35 

of  different  countries, 

Tooled . 

7 

32 

Comparison  of  ...  . 

7 

22 

Book  plates . 

7 

47 

Black,  Use  of . 

12 

7 

General  types  of  .  . 

7 

50 

vii 


p 


viii 


INDEX 


Sec.  Page 


Broken  spectrum  colors,  A  work¬ 
ing:  scale  of .  6  21 

Brussels  and  Wilton  carpets  ...  8  1 

Building:,  Explanation  of . 11  9 

C 

Cap,  Explanation  of . 11  10 

Capitals  and  bases,  Drawing  ...  11  71 

Explanation  of . 11  10 

Carpet  designing .  8  1 

weaving,  Frames  for  ...  8  8 

Carpets,  Brussels  and  Wilton  ...  8  1 

that  may  be  formed  into 
rugs,  Designing  ....  8  13 

Cartoons,  Making  bookcover  ...  7  31 

Catering  to  the  public .  9  10 

Cavetto,  Explanation  of  . 11  14 

Chart,  Making  a  color .  6  7 

Choice  of  designs,  Freedom  in  .  .  10  37 

Chromatic  scale,  Position  of  col¬ 
ors  in . 12  4 

Classes  of  bookcovers .  7  32 

“  “  color .  6  1 

designs .  5  5 

. .  9  13 

Classification  of  bindings .  7  24 

“  color  harmonies  .  6  22 

schemes  .  .  6  14 

“  wallpapers  ...  10  30 

Cloth  binding .  7  25 

Colonnade,  Explanation  of  ....  11  12 

Color .  9  12 

“  Artificial  . 12  2 

“  card,  Making  a . 12  9 

“  chart  C,  spectrum  scales, 

Preparing  the  ...  6  14 

“  “  Making  a .  6  7 

“  Classes  of .  6  1 

“  Distemper .  6  1 

“  Distinction  between  trans¬ 
parent  water  color  and 

distemper .  6  1 

Green . 12  6 

“  Handling .  6  4 

“  harmonies,  Classification  of  6  22 

“  harmony .  6  13 

“  “  . 12  1 

inspiration,  Sources  of  .  .  .  6  14 

"  matching .  6  9 

Nature  of . 12  1 

“  Orange . 12  5 

Color  perception,  Requisite  in  train¬ 
ing  .  6  30 

Perfect  green .  12  6 

orange . 12  5 

12  6 


Sec.  Page 


Color,  Red . 12  5 

scheme.  Advantage  of  a 

good .  6  13 

schemes,  Classification  of  .  6  14 

from  nature  ...  6  29 

N  atural  forms 
that  furnish  .6  29 

sense  a  necessity,  Good  .  .  6  9 

“  Tertiary . 12  4 

The  problem  of .  8  * 

Colored  lights  and  colored  pig¬ 
ments,  Difference  between  mixing  6  18 

Colors .  .  .  9  16 

“  Applying  distemper  ....  6  8 

Blue  and  yellow . 12  4 

Contrast  of . 12  10 

Effect  of  artificial  light  on  .  6  12 

for  wallpaper  printing  ...  10  7 

Grinding .  6  4 

in  chromatic  scale.  Position 

of . 12  4 

“  most  needed .  6  4 

“  Necessary  proportions  of  .  12  7 

“  of  spectrum,  Formation  of  12  3 

Preserving  the  ground  ...  6  6 

Primary . 12  3 

Secondary . 12  4 

“  Semineutral . 12  5 

“  Table  of  contrasts  of  .  .  .  6  17 

Column,  Explanation  of . 11  10 

Columniation,  Styles  of . 11  96 

Combinations  of  three  hues,  Table 

of .  6  28 

Comparison  of  bindings  of  different 

countries .  7  22 

Complementary  harmony .  6  23 

Composite  Order . 11  21 

Plates  of  the.  .  .  11  53 

Table  of  the  .  .  .  11  57 

Conge,  Explanation  of . 11  14 

Contrast  of  colors . 12  10 

“  Simultaneous .  6  16 

Contrasted  harmonies .  6  23 

Contrasts  of  colors.  Table  of  .  .  .  6  17 

Conventional  forms  for  designs, 

Evolving .  5  5 

rendering.  Exercises 

in .  5  14 

units .  5  30 

Conventionalism  .  5  2 

Conventionalization .  5  27 

Corinthian  Order . 11  21 

Plates  of  the.  .  .  11  47 

“  Table  of  the.  .  .  11  52 

Cornice . 11  10 

“  Explanation  of  horizontal  11  92 


Purple 


INDEX 


IX 


Sec. 

Page 

Sec. 

Page 

Cornice,  Explanation  of  raking  .  . 

11 

92 

Designs,  Freedom  in  choice  of  .  . 

10 

37 

Cornices  and  string-courses  .... 

11 

102 

governed  by  the  tools, 

Drawing  of . 

ii 

67 

Early  bookcover  .  .  . 

7 

3 

Corona . 

ii 

10 

Making  the  working 

Cover,  Decorating  the . 

7 

26 

drawings  of  wallpaper 

10 

16 

design,  Character  of  the  .  . 

7 

26 

Modern . 

7 

26 

designs  for  zinc  etchings  . 

7 

41 

Obtaining  suggestions 

Covering  material . 

7 

25 

for . 

8 

18 

Covers,  Magazine . 

7 

30 

of  wallpaper  for  special 

Materials  for . 

7 

28 

rooms . 

10 

28 

Paper  . 

7 

29 

Planted . 

8 

10 

7 

42 

Prices  paid  for  wallpaper 

10 

20 

Cyma,  Explanation  of . 

11 

14 

Rendering:  of . 

10 

19 

recta.  Explanation  of  .  .  . 

11 

14 

Salable . 

9 

23 

reversa.  Explanation  of  .  . 

11 

14 

Sources  of  ideas  for  .  . 

9 

21 

Cymatium,  Explanation  of  ...  . 

11 

15 

“  The . 

9 

6 

Die,  Explanation  of . 

11 

10 

D 

Dining-room  wallpaper . 

10 

31 

Decastyle . 

11 

99 

Distemper  color . 

6 

1 

Decorating  the  cover . 

7 

26 

colors,  Applying:  .  .  . 

6 

8 

Decoration,  Principles  of  wall  .  . 

10 

22 

Distinction  between  transparent 

Decorative  treatment . 

5 

22 

water  color  and  distemper  color 

6 

1 

Denticulated  Doric . 

11 

33 

Distyle . 

11 

99 

Derome  bindings . 

7 

20 

Ditrig:lyph . 

11 

99 

Design,  Character  of  bookcover  . 

7 

1 

Dodecastyle . 

11 

99 

“  Evolution  of  a  bookcover 

7 

38 

Dominant  harmony . 

6 

23 

for  wallpaper.  Laying  out 

Doric,  Denticulated . 

11 

33 

the  .... 

10 

12 

intercolumniations . 

11 

98 

Preparing 

Mutulary . 

11 

33 

the  .... 

10 

12 

Order . 

11 

21 

Limitations  of  field  of  .  . 

7 

14 

Plates  of  the  . 

11 

30 

“  Novelty  of . 

7 

29 

Table  of  the . 

11 

38 

paper . 

8 

3 

The  Greek . 

11 

75 

“  Preparing  the . 

9 

14 

Drawing  Plate,  Title:  Historic 

Propriety  of . 

7 

27 

Ornament  .  .  . 

12 

11 

Tastes  of  different  locali- 

Title:  Natural 

ties  in  style  of . 

10 

27 

Forms  .... 

12 

21 

Designer,  Knowledge  of  styles 

the  orders,  General  pro- 

necessary  to  the  .  . 

7 

21 

portions  for . 

11 

65 

must  be  observant  of 

Drawings  as  instruments  of  con- 

public  wants,  Wall- 

struction . 

11 

12 

paper  . 

10 

45 

Names  of  parts  of  .  .  . 

11 

12 

Designing . 

8 

5 

of  wallpaper  designs. 

Bookcover . 

7 

1 

Making  the  working  . 

10 

16 

carpets  that  may  be 

Preparing  the . 

7 

38 

formed  into  rugs  .  . 

8 

13 

Oilcloth  and  linoleum  . 

9 

1 

E 

Requisites  in  success- 

Early  bindings,  Character  of  .  .  . 

7 

2 

ful  bookcover  .  .  . 

7 

46 

Eaves . 

11 

10 

Wallpaper  . 

10 

1 

Echinus,  Explanation  of . 

11 

19 

Designs,  Classes  of . 

s 

5 

Effects  of  artificial  light  on  colors 

6 

12 

“  **  “ 

9 

13 

Elements  of  ornament . 

5 

1 

E  v  olvi  ng  conventional 

Ends . 

8 

2 

forms  for . 

5 

5 

Enneastyle . 

11 

99 

for  rugs,  Popular  .... 

8 

16 

Entablature,  Explanation  of  .  .  . 

11 

12 

zinc  etchings,  Cover 

7 

41 

Entasis,  Explanation  of . 

11 

20 

4 

\ 


INDEX 


Sec.  Page 


Epistyle,  Explanation  of  .  .  .  .  11  12 

Extra  binding; .  7  25 

Extrados,  Explanation  of . 11  12 

F 

Face,  Explanation  of . 11  14 

Fanfares .  7  17 

Fascia,  Explanation  of . 11  14 

Fillet,  Explanation  of . 11  14 

“  Split . 11  92 

Finishing  .  7  23 

Floor . 11  10 

covering  designs.  Principles 

governing .  9  11 

Forecasting  styles  of  wallpaper  .  10  20 

Forming  new  patterns  .  8  15 

Forwarding .  7  23 

Frames .  8  8 

Francis  I  bookcovers .  7  15 

Frieze,  Explanations  of . 11  12 

G 

Gable  . 11  9 

Geometrical  relations  of  the  orders  11  57 

Glass  and  other  aids,  Use  of  the 

repeating  .  5  32 

Greek  Doric  Order,  The . 11  75 

Ionic  Order,  The . 11  79 

Orders,  The . 11  75 

Green  color . 12  6 

“  Perfect . 12  6 

Grinding  colors .  6  4 

Grolier  style  of  bookcover  design  7  5 

Ground  colors,  Preserving  the  .  .  6  6 

II 

Half  binding .  7  25 

Hall  wallpaper . 10  30 

Hand  and  machine  binding  ...  7  29 

printed  and  machine-printed 
papers.  Difference  between  10  6 

printing .  9  3 

of  wallpaper  ....  10  1 

Harmonies,  Contrasted .  6  23 

Harmony,  Analogous .  6  23 

Color  . 12  1 

Complementary  ....  6  23 

Dominant .  6  23 

Producing . 12  7 

Heptastyle . 11  99 

Heraldry  in  bookbinding .  7  3 

Hexastyle . 11  99 

Hip . 11  9 

Horizontal  cornice.  Explanation  of  11  92 

valley . 11  9 

Hue  or  tone.  Ways  of  changing  the  6  10 


I 

Sec. 

Page 

Inlay  work . 

Intercolumniation,  Explanation  of 

9 

5 

plate  of  . 

11 

96 

Intercolumniations,  Doric  .  .  .  . 

11 

98 

Intrados,  Explanation  of . 

11 

12 

Ionic  Order . 

11 

21 

Plates  of  the . 

11 

39 

Table  of  the . 

11 

46 

The  Greek . 

11 

79 

volute.  The  . 

11 

61 

Italian  bookbinding,  Characteris¬ 
tics  of .  7  7 


tics  of .  7  7 

.1 

Jansen  style  of  bookcover  design  7  19 

“  “  design,  Revival  of 

the .  7  27 

K 

Kitchen  wallpaper . 10  32 

t, 

Lean-to . 11  9 

Lettering  .  7  56 

Library  wallpaper . 10  31 

Light,  Analysis  of  white  .  .....  12  2 

“  and  shadow.  Relation  of  .  .  12  2 

on  colors,  Effect  of  artificial  6  12 

“  Standard  of . 12  1 

“  waves . 12  1 

Lines  at  45  degrees . 11  59 

“  “  60  degrees . 11  60 

M 

Machine  binding,  Hand  and  ....  7  29 

“  printed  papers,  Difference 
between  hand-printed 

and  . 10  6 

“  printing . 9  4 

of  wallpaper  .  .  10  3 

Magazine  covers  .  .  7  30 

Manufacture  of  wallpaper . 10  1 

Materials  for  covers .  7  28 

Medium  to  be  used  in  specific 

cases  .  6  2 

Metope.  Explanation  of . 11  36 

Mixing  colored  lights  and  colored 
pigments,  Difference  between  .  .  6  18 

Modern  bookbinding .  7  22 

Modillions,  Explanation  of  ....  11  18 

Monotriglyph . 11  99 

Mosaic  binding .  7  19 

Moulding,  Explanation  of  thumb  .  11  14 

Mouldings . 11  13 

Styles  of . 11  17 

Mutulary  Doric .  ....  11  33 

Mutules.  Explanation  of . 11  18 


INDEX 


xi 


Sec. 


Natural  forms  on  ornament,  Influ¬ 
ence  of .  5 

“  that  furnish  color 

schemes .  0 

Nature  of  color . 12 

“  study .  5 

Necking,  Explanation  of . 11 

Neutralize,  Meaning  of . 12 

Neutral  tints . 12 

O 

Octastyle . 11 

Oilcloth  and  linoleum  designing  .  9 

Oilcloths.  Printing .  9 

Orange  color  . 12 

“  Perfect . 12 

Order,  The  Greek  Doric  . 11 

"  Ionic . 11 

Orders,  Five . 11 

“  General  proportions  for 

drawing  the . 11 

“  Geometrical  relations  of  • 

the . 11 

“  Proportions  of  the  ....  11 

"  The . 11 

"  five  . 11 

“  Greek . 11 

Oriental  rugs  .  8 

Originality  an  essential .  9 

Ornament,  Elements  of .  5 

Influence  of  natural 

forms  on .  5 

Outline  blocks .  9 

Outlining  and  rendering .  5 

Overelaboration  to  be  avoided  .  .  5 

Ovola,  Explanation  of . 11 

P 

Paper  covers .  7 

'  “  7 

“  Design .  8 

Parapet,  Explanation  of  . 11 

Parapets . 11 

Parlor  or  drawing-room  wall¬ 
paper  . 10 

Patterns,  Forming  new .  8 

“  Styles  of .  9 

Pedestal,  Explanation  of . 11 

Pedestals,  Explanation  of  plate  of  11 

Pediments,  Explanation  of  plate 

of  . 11 

Pentastyle . 11 

Perfect  orange  color . 12 

Persian  rugs,  Reproduction  of  .  .  8 

Pick .  8 

Pier,  Explanation  of .  .11 


Sec.  Page 


Pilasters,  Explanation  of  plate  of  11  85 

Plans,  sections,  elevations,  and 
perspective  views,  Subdivision 

of  drawings  into . 11  12 

Plant  analysis .  5  1 

“  life.  Studies  of .  5  18 

Planted  designs .  8  10 

Planting,  Meaning  of .  8  9 

Plants,  Analytic  study  of .  5  14 

Plinth,  Explanation  of . 11  20 

Popular  designs  for  rugs .  8  16 

Portraiture  not  aimed  at .  5  28 

Post,  Explanation  of . 11  10 

Preserving  the  ground  colors  ...  6  6 

Prices  paid  for  wallpaper  designs  .  10  20 

Primary  colors  . 12  3 

Principles  of  wall  decoration  ...  10  22 

Printed  bookcovers .  7  35 

Printing,  Hand  .  9  3 

“  Machine .  9  4 

“  of  wallpaper,  Hand  ...  10  1 

Machine  10  3 

“  oilcloths .  9  1 

“  process,  The .  9  3 

Problem  of  color.  The .  8  8 

Process  of  binding  .  7  23 

Profile,  Explanation  of . 11  14 

Proportioning  of  masses,  Influence 
of .  6  27 

Proportions.  Importance  of  proper  12  8 

“  of  colors,  Necessary  12  7 

Propriety  of  design .  7  27 

Purple  color . 12  6 

R 

Raking  cornice,  Explanation  of  .  .  11  92 

Red  color . 12  5 

Rendering,  Exercises  in  conven¬ 
tional  .  5  14 

of  design.  Style  of  .  .  7  56 

“  wallpaper  designs  .  10  19 

Outlining  and .  5  15 

“  Simplicity  and  free¬ 
dom  of .  5  15 

Repeating  glass  and  other  aids, 

XJse  of .  5  32 

Repeats,  Standard .  8  12 

Reproduction  of  Persian  rugs  ...  8  21 

Reproductive  processes  necessary, 

Knowledge  of .  7  31 

Revival  of  the  Jansen  style  of  de¬ 
sign  .  7  27 

Ridge  . 11  9 

Rollers  for  machine  printing, 

Method  of  making  the . 10  4 

Roofs,  Shapes  of . 11  9 


Page 

11 

29 

1 

13 

19 

5 

7 

99 

1 

1 

5 

5 

75 

79 

21 

65 

57 

27 

17 

9 

75 

19 

23 

1 

11 

1 

15 

17 

14 

29 

42 

3 

10 

88 

30 

15 

6 

10 

87 

92 

99 

5 

21 

2 

10 


INDEX 


xii 


Sec. 

Rugs,  American  Wilton .  8 

Oriental .  8 

Reproduction  of  Persian  .  .  8 

Rules .  8 

S 

Salable  designs .  9 

Scotia,  Explanation  of . 11 

Secondary  colors . 12 

Securing  the  sheets .  7 

Semineutral  colors . 12 

Shadow . J2 

Relation  of  light  and  .  .  12 

Shaft,  Explanation  of . 11 

Shanks,  Explanation  of . 11 

Sheets,  Securing  the .  7 

Simultaneous  contrast .  6 

Sketch  should  represent  finished 

object,  Submitted .  6 

Soffit,  Explanation  of . ll 

Space  filling .  5 

Spandrel,  Explanation  of . 11 

Spectrum  colors,  A  working  scale 

of  pure .  6 

Formation  of  colors  of  .  12 
hues,  Table  of  com¬ 
bined  pairs  of  ...  .  G 

scales .  6 

The . 12 

Split  fillet .  11 

Stamping  and  printing  processes, 

Various  technical .  7 

Standard  repeats .  8 

Studies  of  plant  life .  5 

Study,  Nature .  5 

Stuffing  warp .  8 

Style  of  design,  Tastes  of  different 

localities  in . 10 

wallpaper.  Examples  of 

prevailing  .  10 
Forecasting  .  10 

Styles  of  patterns .  9 

Superposition,  Explanation  of 
plate  of . 11 

T 

Table  of  combinations  of  three 

hues .  6 

“  “  combined  pairs  of  spec¬ 
trum  hues .  6 

contrasts  of  colors  ...  fi 

Taenia,  Explanation  of . ll 

Tertiary  color . 12 

Tetrastyle . 11 

Threads,  Warp  . .  8 

Thumb  moulding.  Explanation  of  11 


Sec.  Page 

Tints,  Formation  of  neutral  ...  12  7 

Neutral . 12  7 

Tooled  bookcovers .  7  32 

Tooling,  Modern  tools  and  ....  7  32 

Tools  and  tooling,  Modern  ....  7  32 

for  bookbinding .  7  3 

bookcover  design.  Origin 

of  French .  7  4 

Torus,  Explanation  of . 11  14 

Treatment,  Decorative .  5  22 

Triads .  6  27 

Tristyle . 11  99 

Tuscan  Order . n  21 

Plates  of  the  ....  11  29 

Table  of  the  ....  11  30 

Tympanum,  Explanation  of  ...  11  92 

TT 

Units,  Conventional .  5  30 

V 

Valley,  Horizontal . 11  9 

Vault,  Explanation  of . 11  12 

Vertical  lines . n  63 

Vignola,  The  American . 11  9 

Vignola’s  Orders,  Plate  of  ....  11  27 

Volute,  The  Ionic . 11  gi 

W 

Wall  decoration,  Principles  of  .  .10  22 

Wallpaper,  Bedroom . 10  32 

designer  must  be  ob¬ 
servant  of  public 

wants . 10  45 

designing . 10  1 

designs  for  special 

rooms  .  .  10  28 

Prices  paid 
for  ...  .  10  20 

Rendering 
of  ....  10  19 

Dining-room . 10  31 

Forecasting  styles  of  10  20 

Hall  . 10  30 

Hand  printing  of  ...  10  1 

Kitchen . 10  32 

Library  . 10  3] 

Machine  printing  of  .  10  3 

Manufacture  of  ...  10  1 

Parlor  or  drawing¬ 
room  . 10  30 

Preparing  the  design 

for . 10  12 

printing.  Colors  for  .  .  10  7 

Wallpapers,  Classification  of  ...  10  30 

Walls,  Base  of . 11  10 


Page 

22 

19 

21 

3 

23 

14 

4 

23 

5 

2 

2 

10 

36 

23 

16 

2 

12 

27 

12 

19 

3 

26 

14 

3 

92 

35 

12 

18 

13 

2 

27 

43 

20 

6 

99 

28 

26 

17 

19 

4 

99 

2 

14 


INDEX 


X11J 


Sec. 

Page 

Sec. 

Page 

Warp,  Stuffing: . 

8 

2 

Wilton  rugs,  American . 

8 

22 

“  threads . 

8 

2 

Working:  drawings  of  wallpaper 

Ways  of  changing  the  hue  or  tone 

6 

10 

designs.  Making  the. 

10 

16 

Weft . 

8 

2 

scale  of  broken  spec- 

White  light,  Analysis  of . 

12 

2 

trum  colors,  A 

6 

21 

Whole  binding . 

7 

25 

“  of  pure  spectrum 

Wilton  carpets,  Brussels  and  .  .  . 

8 

1 

colors,  A  .  .  .  . 

6 

19 

HOW  TO  OPEN  A 
NEW  BOOK . 


From  " Modern  Bookbinding;  Practically  Considered,' 
By  IVnt .  Matthews . 


OLD  the  book  with  its  back  on 
a  smooth  or  covered  table ;  let 
the  front  board  down,  then  the 
Other,  holding  the  leaves  in  one  hand 
while  you  open  a  few  leaves  at  the  back, 
then  a  few  at  the  front,  and  so  go  on, 
alternately  opening  back  and  front, 
gently  pressing  open  the  sections  till 
you  reach  the  center  of  the  Volume. 
Do  this  two  or  three  times,  and  you 
will  obtain  the  best  results.  Open  the 
Volume  violently  or  carelessly  in  any 
one  place,  and  you  will  likely  break 
the  back,  and  cause  a  start  in  the 
leaves. 

Never  force  the  back.  If  it  does  not 
yield  to  gently  opening,  rely  upon  it 
the  back  is  too  tightly  or  strongly 
lined. 

A  connoisseur,  many  years  ago,  an 
excellent  customer  of  mine,  who 
thought  he  knew  perfectly  how  to 
handle  books,  came  into  my  office 
when  I  had  an  expensive  binding  just 
brought  from  the  bindery,  ready  to  be 
sent  home;  he,  before  my  eyes,  took 
hold  of  the  Volume,  and,  tightly  hold¬ 
ing  the  leaves  in  each  hand,  instead  of 
allowing  them  free  play,  violently 
opened  it  in  the  center  and  exclaimed, 
“How  beautifully  your'  bindings 
open!”  I  almost  fainted.  He  had 
broken  the  back  of  the  Volume,  and  it 
had  to  be  rebound. 


INTERNATIONAL 
TEXTBOOK  COMPANY, 

Scranton,  Pa. 


847S-12414  1  30  05  90m 


